fix: align Docker actions, job env and host mode with GitHub (#1268)

- Docker actions evaluate `runs.args` and `runs.env` with their own `inputs`, so a same-named `workflow_dispatch` input no longer replaces the step's `with:` value
- Dockerfile action images are tagged per step and job and removed afterwards, so changed Dockerfiles rebuild and concurrent jobs never share an image
- Workflow and job `env` are evaluated before job and service container credentials and service `env` use them
- Docker actions in host jobs get the host workspace and file-command directory mounted, and no longer inherit the runner's own `PATH`
- Cache server address detection accepts a single interface address

Fixes: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/390
Fixes: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/406
Fixes: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/578
Related: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/64
Reviewed-on: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/pulls/1268
Reviewed-by: bircni <[email protected]>
Co-authored-by: silverwind <[email protected]>

.gitea/workflows/release-nightly.yml

@@ -74,10 +74,10 @@ jobs:
           fetch-depth: 0 # all history for all branches and tags
 
       - name: Set up QEMU
-        uses: docker/setup-qemu-action@1f40c72289eff860ee54a304f1438e3cff362e0a # v4
+        uses: docker/setup-qemu-action@99012661954931238ded8c8b007157a8430204e1 # v4
 
       - name: Set up Docker BuildX
-        uses: docker/setup-buildx-action@37fe631027851001ddb9b187196cc803df7f5f0e # v4
+        uses: docker/setup-buildx-action@f87e5991a6d7451dcb8d9637bfbc97413f497069 # v4
 
       - name: Login to DockerHub
         uses: docker/login-action@dbcb813823bdd20940b903addbd779551569679f # v4
@@ -94,7 +94,7 @@ jobs:
           echo REPO_VERSION=$(git describe --tags --always | sed 's/-/+/' | sed 's/^v//') >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
 
       - name: Build and push
-        uses: docker/build-push-action@53b7df96c91f9c12dcc8a07bcb9ccacbed38856a # v7
+        uses: docker/build-push-action@c3c9e263c25d99ce0380d002d59b67737d91b0dc # v7
         with:
           context: .
           file: ./Dockerfile

.gitea/workflows/release-tag.yml

@@ -77,10 +77,10 @@ jobs:
           fetch-depth: 0 # all history for all branches and tags
 
       - name: Set up QEMU
-        uses: docker/setup-qemu-action@1f40c72289eff860ee54a304f1438e3cff362e0a # v4
+        uses: docker/setup-qemu-action@99012661954931238ded8c8b007157a8430204e1 # v4
 
       - name: Set up Docker BuildX
-        uses: docker/setup-buildx-action@37fe631027851001ddb9b187196cc803df7f5f0e # v4
+        uses: docker/setup-buildx-action@f87e5991a6d7451dcb8d9637bfbc97413f497069 # v4
 
       - name: Login to DockerHub
         uses: docker/login-action@dbcb813823bdd20940b903addbd779551569679f # v4
@@ -103,7 +103,7 @@ jobs:
             suffix=${{ matrix.variant.tag_suffix }},onlatest=true
 
       - name: Build and push
-        uses: docker/build-push-action@53b7df96c91f9c12dcc8a07bcb9ccacbed38856a # v7
+        uses: docker/build-push-action@c3c9e263c25d99ce0380d002d59b67737d91b0dc # v7
         with:
           context: .
           file: ./Dockerfile

.gitea/workflows/test.yml

@@ -30,8 +30,8 @@ jobs:
       # daemon retains them between runs, so this is usually a fast manifest re-check.
       - name: pre-pull test images
         env:
-          TEST_JOB_IMAGE: node:24-bookworm-slim@sha256:2fe369e969550cde8e867afc3fe370b260140cab4a23d467074295b42163d553 # renovate: datasource=docker
-          TEST_SERVICE_IMAGE: nginx:alpine@sha256:72ba65eb42c10344912a84ff42408db7d34f2feb642204570ab8fc5ffd29f1d3 # renovate: datasource=docker
+          TEST_JOB_IMAGE: node:24-bookworm-slim@sha256:0e0ff40c39bc087845bfb27465a0df4ea419520094bc35842ff83dd8cbe6f9b6 # renovate: datasource=docker
+          TEST_SERVICE_IMAGE: nginx:alpine@sha256:df221db836e1754089190208cee7eeda94f233197056426eda74a43ab1abeac2 # renovate: datasource=docker
         run: |
           for image in "$TEST_JOB_IMAGE" "$TEST_SERVICE_IMAGE"; do
             for attempt in 1 2 3; do
@@ -53,6 +53,8 @@ jobs:
       # after `make test` so the images it needs are already present on the host daemon.
       - name: test against dind image
         run: make test-dind
+      - name: test against podman
+        run: make test-dind TARGET=podman
       - name: coverage report
         run: |
           make coverage-report

CLAUDE.md

@@ -1 +0,0 @@
-@AGENTS.md

DEVELOPMENT.md

@@ -31,6 +31,11 @@ depending on the prefix:
 - Command *properties* also escape `%3A` and `%2C`, which the UI never decodes, so the reporter
   decodes exactly those two when folding a location into an annotation.
 
+## Built-in actions
+
+Each lives in `internal/pkg/action/<name>` and is registered in `builtinActions` in
+`act/runner/step_action_builtin.go`.
+
 ## End-to-end compatibility tests
 
 `make test-e2e` runs the runner against `E2E_GITEA_IMAGE`. It defaults to the nightly image.

Dockerfile

@@ -32,6 +32,8 @@ COPY scripts/s6 /etc/s6
 
 VOLUME /data
 
+ENV TINI_SUBREAPER=1
+
 ENTRYPOINT ["s6-svscan","/etc/s6"]
 
 ### DIND-ROOTLESS VARIANT
@@ -56,6 +58,7 @@ VOLUME /data
 RUN mkdir -p /data && chown -R rootless:rootless /etc/s6 /data
 
 ENV DOCKER_HOST=unix:///run/user/1000/docker.sock
+ENV TINI_SUBREAPER=1
 
 USER rootless
 ENTRYPOINT ["s6-svscan","/etc/s6"]

Makefile

@@ -6,7 +6,13 @@ SHASUM ?= shasum -a 256
 HAS_GO = $(shell hash $(GO) > /dev/null 2>&1 && echo "GO" || echo "NOGO" )
 XGO_PACKAGE ?= src.techknowlogick.com/[email protected] # renovate: datasource=go
 XGO_VERSION := go-1.27.x
-GXZ_PACKAGE ?= github.com/ulikunitz/xz/cmd/[email protected]6 # renovate: datasource=go
+GXZ_PACKAGE ?= github.com/ulikunitz/xz/cmd/[email protected]7 # renovate: datasource=go
+
+PODMAN_TEST_IMAGE ?= quay.io/containers/podman:v5.8.4-immutable@sha256:90405e3c6a86f33c5a6f8dbdfa8e02a98143a8ba4337b84bdaec5336d2ef008a # renovate: datasource=docker
+E2E_JOB_IMAGE ?= node:24-bookworm@sha256:64af3819f9275802414d7cdc38c27e9d82bd564dec4d4da87d008255d36c63b4 # renovate: datasource=docker
+SERVICE_IMAGE ?= nginx:1.31.4-alpine@sha256:db35bfc6b2951e7f8a72db5db120288c127ffaeeb4a6d4b95a26fead017d5913 # renovate: datasource=docker
+E2E_GITEA_IMAGE ?= gitea/gitea:main-nightly
+E2E_K3S_IMAGE ?= rancher/k3s:v1.36.4-k3s1@sha256:edad48e12bf81c3a09ac1c05c0c0ffaaa22145980b989d6fae84543a76b83657 # renovate: datasource=docker
 
 LINUX_ARCHS ?= linux/amd64,linux/arm64
 DARWIN_ARCHS ?= darwin-12/amd64,darwin-12/arm64
@@ -158,17 +164,14 @@ coverage-report: ## turn coverage.txt from `make test` into .tmp/coverage.md
 	@echo "Wrote .tmp/coverage.md"
 
 .PHONY: test-dind
-test-dind: ## run the daemon-facing tests against the built dind image (TARGET=dind|dind-rootless)
-	@./scripts/test-dind.sh $(TARGET)
+test-dind: ## run the daemon-facing tests against the built dind image or podman (TARGET=dind|dind-rootless|podman)
+	@PODMAN_TEST_IMAGE=$(PODMAN_TEST_IMAGE) ./scripts/test-dind.sh $(TARGET)
 
-E2E_JOB_IMAGE ?= node:24-bookworm@sha256:6dac556d980b7f0e5498d08f08cee0ca67798b4ad6c23964a9214920e67758d0 # renovate: datasource=docker
-SERVICE_IMAGE ?= nginx:1.31.4-alpine@sha256:db35bfc6b2951e7f8a72db5db120288c127ffaeeb4a6d4b95a26fead017d5913 # renovate: datasource=docker
-E2E_GITEA_IMAGE ?= gitea/gitea:main-nightly
 E2E_CONCURRENCY ?= 8
 
 .PHONY: test-e2e
 test-e2e: ## run Gitea compatibility tests against E2E_GITEA_IMAGE
-	@E2E_CONCURRENCY=$(E2E_CONCURRENCY) E2E_GITEA_IMAGE=$(E2E_GITEA_IMAGE) E2E_JOB_IMAGE=$(E2E_JOB_IMAGE) GO=$(GO) SERVICE_IMAGE=$(SERVICE_IMAGE) ./tools/test-e2e.sh
+	@E2E_CONCURRENCY=$(E2E_CONCURRENCY) E2E_GITEA_IMAGE=$(E2E_GITEA_IMAGE) E2E_K3S_IMAGE=$(E2E_K3S_IMAGE) E2E_JOB_IMAGE=$(E2E_JOB_IMAGE) GO=$(GO) SERVICE_IMAGE=$(SERVICE_IMAGE) ./tools/test-e2e.sh
 
 .PHONY: install
 install: $(GOFILES) ## install the runner binary via `go install`

README.md

@@ -79,53 +79,24 @@ If the registry succeed, it will run immediately. Next time, you could run the r
 
 ### Run with docker
 
-```bash
-docker run -e GITEA_INSTANCE_URL=https://your_gitea.com -e GITEA_RUNNER_REGISTRATION_TOKEN=<your_token> -v /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --name my_runner gitea/runner:nightly
-```
-
-Mount a volume on `/data` if you want the registration file and optional config to survive container recreation (see [scripts/run.sh](scripts/run.sh)).
-
-> **`/data` does not hold the image cache.** It is the runner's working directory and contains only the `.runner` registration file and, optionally, your config file. Images pulled for jobs live in the *Docker daemon's* data root, which for the `dind` flavours is inside the container (`/var/lib/docker`, or `/home/rootless/.local/share/docker` for `dind-rootless`). To keep the image cache across restarts, give that path its own volume as well — otherwise every new container re-pulls the job images. With the `basic` flavour the images live on whichever daemon you point the runner at, so there is nothing extra to persist.
-
-### Image flavours
-
-The image is published in three flavours, all built from the single multi-stage [Dockerfile](Dockerfile) in this repository. They differ only in how a Docker daemon is made available to the jobs the runner executes; the `gitea-runner` binary inside them is identical.
-
-| Tag | Build target | Base image | Docker daemon | Process supervisor | Runs as |
-| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
-| `latest` (and `<version>`) | `basic` | `alpine` | none — uses an external daemon you provide | [`tini`](https://github.com/krallin/tini) | `root` |
-| `latest-dind` | `dind` | `docker:dind` | bundled, started inside the container | [`s6`](https://skarnet.org/software/s6/) | `root` (privileged) |
-| `latest-dind-rootless` | `dind-rootless` | `docker:dind-rootless` | bundled, started rootless inside the container | [`s6`](https://skarnet.org/software/s6/) | `rootless` (UID 1000) |
-
-#### `latest` — basic
-
-The default flavour ships only the runner on a minimal Alpine base. It contains **no Docker daemon of its own**: jobs that use `docker://` images need a daemon supplied from outside the container, typically by bind-mounting the host's socket:
-
-```bash
-docker run -e GITEA_INSTANCE_URL=https://your_gitea.com -e GITEA_RUNNER_REGISTRATION_TOKEN=<your_token> \
-  -v /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --name my_runner gitea/runner:latest
-```
-
-`tini` is the entrypoint (it reaps zombie processes), and it just runs [`scripts/run.sh`](scripts/run.sh), which registers the runner on first start and then execs `gitea-runner daemon`. This flavour does not need `--privileged`. The trade-off is that jobs share the host's daemon, so they can see other containers and images on that daemon.
-
-#### `latest-dind` — Docker-in-Docker
-
-This flavour is based on the official `docker:dind` image and bundles its own Docker daemon, so it needs no external socket — only the `--privileged` flag that Docker-in-Docker requires:
+The recommended Docker-in-Docker image runs its own Docker daemon for jobs. Jobs never get the host's Docker socket, which is equivalent to root access on the host.
 
 ```bash
 docker run --privileged -e GITEA_INSTANCE_URL=https://your_gitea.com -e GITEA_RUNNER_REGISTRATION_TOKEN=<your_token> \
-  --name my_runner gitea/runner:latest-dind
+  -v "$PWD/data:/data" -v runner-docker:/var/lib/docker --name my_runner gitea/runner:nightly-dind
 ```
 
-Two processes have to run side by side here (the Docker daemon and the runner), so the entrypoint is the [`s6`](https://skarnet.org/software/s6/) supervision tree under [`scripts/s6`](scripts/s6) instead of `tini`. `s6` starts `dockerd`, and the runner service waits for the daemon to come up (`s6-svwait`) before launching [`run.sh`](scripts/run.sh). Each container has a private daemon isolated from the host's, at the cost of running privileged.
+The volumes keep the runner's registration and the job image cache across container recreation.
 
-#### `latest-dind-rootless` — rootless Docker-in-Docker
+### Image flavours
 
-Same idea as `dind`, but built on `docker:dind-rootless` so the bundled daemon and the runner run as an unprivileged user (`rootless`, UID 1000) rather than `root`. `DOCKER_HOST` is preset to `unix:///run/user/1000/docker.sock` so the runner talks to the rootless daemon. This reduces the blast radius compared to the privileged `dind` flavour, but rootless Docker carries the usual rootless limitations (networking, cgroups, storage drivers, and some operations that need additional host configuration such as `/etc/subuid` / `/etc/subgid` mappings and unprivileged user-namespace support).
+| Tag | Docker daemon for jobs |
+| --- | --- |
+| `latest-dind` (recommended) | Bundled, needs `--privileged`. |
+| `latest-dind-rootless` | Bundled, runs as a non-root user (UID 1000) for stronger isolation. Needs `--privileged` and [rootless Docker](https://docs.docker.com/engine/security/rootless/) support on the host. Keeps its image cache in `/home/rootless/.local/share/docker`. |
+| `latest` | None. Mount the host's socket with `-v /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock`, or set `DOCKER_HOST`. |
 
-> **The UID is fixed at 1000.** It comes from the `rootless` user baked into the upstream `docker:dind-rootless` base image, and the bundled daemon always listens on `/run/user/1000/docker.sock` inside the container, so running this flavour as a different user (`--user 1001`) does not work. If you need the runner to talk to a *host* rootless daemon that runs under some other UID, use the `basic` flavour instead and bind-mount that daemon's socket (see [examples/vm/rootless-docker.md](examples/vm/rootless-docker.md)); pointing `DOCKER_HOST` at a host socket from inside `dind-rootless` will not work. Changing the UID otherwise means rebuilding the image from a base with a different `rootless` user.
-
-> **Note on Podman:** these images target the Docker daemon. The bundled `dind`/`dind-rootless` daemons are `dockerd`, not Podman, and the `basic` flavour expects a Docker-compatible socket. Running them under rootless Podman is not a supported configuration, though pointing the `basic` flavour at a Podman socket that emulates the Docker API may work for some workloads.
+Versioned and `nightly` tags carry the same suffixes, for example `nightly-dind`. The images target Docker, not Podman.
 
 ### Configuration
 
@@ -201,10 +172,10 @@ A label is written as:
 | Part | Meaning |
 | --- | --- |
 | `name` | The name a workflow refers to in `runs-on`, e.g. `ubuntu-latest`. |
-| `schema` | Either `docker` or `host`. Defaults to `host` when omitted. |
-| `args` | Only used by the `docker` schema: the image to run the job in. |
+| `schema` | `docker`, `kubernetes` or `host`. Defaults to `host` when omitted. |
+| `args` | Only used by the `docker` and `kubernetes` schemas: the image to run the job in. |
 
-Two schemas are supported:
+Three schemas are supported:
 
 - **`docker://<image>`** — the job runs inside a container created from `<image>`:
 
@@ -212,6 +183,12 @@ Two schemas are supported:
   ubuntu-latest:docker://docker.gitea.com/runner-images:ubuntu-latest
   ```
 
+- **`kubernetes://<image>`** — the job runs as a Kubernetes pod created from `<image>`, see **[docs/kubernetes.md](docs/kubernetes.md)**:
+
+  ```text
+  ubuntu-latest:kubernetes://docker.gitea.com/runner-images:ubuntu-latest
+  ```
+
 - **`host`** — the job's steps run directly on the machine the runner is on, using the tools installed there:
 
   ```text
@@ -226,9 +203,9 @@ ubuntu-latest:docker://docker.gitea.com/runner-images:ubuntu-latest,macos:host
 
 a workflow with `runs-on: ubuntu-latest` is executed in the `runner-images:ubuntu-latest` container, and one with `runs-on: macos` is executed directly on the host.
 
-Names may themselves contain a colon (for example `pool:e57e18d4-10d4-406f-93bf-60f127221bdd`); only `host` and `docker` are treated as schemas.
+Names may themselves contain a colon, for example `pool:e57e18d4-10d4-406f-93bf-60f127221bdd`. Only `host`, `docker` and `kubernetes` are treated as schemas.
 
-If a job's `runs-on` matches none of the runner's labels, or sets no `runs-on` at all, it still runs: in `runner.default_image` where docker is available, on the host where it is not. Images maintained for this purpose are listed at [gitea/runner-images](https://gitea.com/gitea/runner-images).
+If a job's `runs-on` matches none of the runner's labels, or sets no `runs-on` at all, it still runs in `runner.default_image`: as a container when the runner has `docker` labels, as a pod when it has `kubernetes` labels, else as a container where docker is available and on the host where it is not. Images maintained for this purpose are listed at [gitea/runner-images](https://gitea.com/gitea/runner-images).
 
 Labels are chosen at registration time (`--labels`, or the interactive prompt) and can be changed afterwards by editing `runner.labels` in the config file, or in the Gitea UI under the runner's settings.
 
@@ -298,7 +275,7 @@ These hosts are added to `no_proxy` for jobs, so they are always reached directl
 
 Gitea is not added. Add it to `no_proxy` yourself if it should be reached directly.
 
-To change a value for one job, set it in a step's `env:` or in the job's `container.env`. Setting it at workflow or job level has no effect. To change it for the whole runner, set it in `runner.envs`. A `no_proxy` set there is added to the list above instead of replacing it.
+For one step, set it in the step's `env:`, for the rest of a job, write it to `$GITHUB_ENV`. Setting it at workflow or job level or in `container.env` has no effect. To change it for the whole runner, set it in `runner.envs`. A `no_proxy` set there is added to the list above instead of replacing it.
 
 Images are pulled by the Docker daemon, which needs its own proxy setting. In the `dind` images the daemon runs in the same container and reads the variables above. For any other daemon, see [the Docker documentation](https://docs.docker.com/engine/daemon/proxy/). The runner logs a warning at startup if it has a proxy and the daemon does not.
 
@@ -306,9 +283,13 @@ Dockerfile actions are built with these variables as build arguments, so their `
 
 A password in a proxy URL is hidden in job logs. Any step can still read it, because the step is given the proxy URL in its environment.
 
+#### Built-in actions (`uses: builtin:<name>`)
+
+Use `uses: builtin:checkout` to check out a repository without downloading `actions/checkout` or needing Node in the job image, see **[docs/builtin-actions.md](docs/builtin-actions.md)**.
+
 #### Caching (`actions/cache`)
 
-Each runner starts its own cache server, so runners do not share cached entries. When the runner itself runs in Docker, set `cache.host` to an address job containers can reach and `cache.port` to a fixed published port, or put jobs on a shared `container.network`.
+Each runner starts its own cache server, so runners do not share cached entries. A runner in a container on the jobs' Docker daemon attaches itself to each job network, so jobs reach its cache without extra setup.
 
 **Sharing a cache between runners**
 
@@ -333,10 +314,28 @@ cache:
   external_secret: "<secret>"
 ```
 
-Jobs connect to `external_server` too, so point it at the reverse proxy if one fronts the server. `--dir`, `--host` and `--port` override the matching `cache` keys. Eviction settings take effect on the cache server, not on the runners.
+`--dir`, `--host` and `--port` override the matching `cache` keys. Eviction settings take effect on the cache server, not on the runners.
 
 Runners can also share one `cache.dir` on a file system with working file locks, at the cost of slower cache requests.
 
+**Storing the cache in an S3-compatible bucket**
+
+The cache can also be stored in an S3-compatible bucket such as AWS S3, MinIO or RustFS, with no cache server. Runners with the same settings use the same cache:
+
+```yaml
+cache:
+  s3:
+    endpoint: "http://minio:9000"
+    region: "us-east-1"
+    bucket: "runner-cache"
+    prefix: "gitea-runner-cache"
+    path_style: true
+    access_key_file: "/run/secrets/cache-s3-access-key"
+    secret_key_file: "/run/secrets/cache-s3-secret-key"
+```
+
+A cache saved on one runner can be restored on the others within 30 seconds. The eviction settings below do not apply to the bucket, so add lifecycle rules to it that expire old caches and abort incomplete multipart uploads.
+
 **Eviction**
 
 Entries not read or written within `retention` (default `168h`) are removed. A repository over `repo_size_limit` (default `10GB`) loses its least recently used entries, and `size_limit` (off by default) caps the whole cache the same way. Entries in use are never removed. The cache also keeps 1024 MiB free on its volume, or `health_check.min_free_disk_space_mb` when health checks are enabled. See [config.example.yaml](internal/pkg/config/config.example.yaml) for all options.
@@ -358,6 +357,7 @@ While the runner is idle it cleans up after earlier jobs:
 - only purely numeric subdirectories under `container.workdir_parent` are treated as task workspaces and may be removed
 - cleanup assumes `container.workdir_parent` is not shared across multiple runners
 - on runners that use docker, per-job networks left behind by jobs the runner did not live to tear down are removed, identified by the `com.gitea.runner.uuid` label carrying this runner's uuid
+- on runners with `kubernetes` labels, job pods with that label older than `runner.workdir_cleanup_age` are removed the same way, together with their Secrets
 - cleanup runs every `runner.idle_cleanup_interval` (default: `10m`; set `0` to disable), and setting either knob to `0` disables all of the above
 
 #### Post-task script (`runner.post_task_script`)
@@ -380,6 +380,10 @@ Both hooks are synchronous and block the job while they run. Either one exiting
 
 See **[docs/job-hooks.md](docs/job-hooks.md)** for the execution order, environment, and platform notes.
 
+#### OpenTelemetry (`OTEL_*`)
+
+Set `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_ENDPOINT` in the runner's environment to send a trace of every job, and the runner's metrics, to an OpenTelemetry collector. See **[docs/telemetry.md](docs/telemetry.md)**.
+
 #### Local job logs (`log.job.dir`)
 
 Set `log.job.dir` to a path and the runner writes a copy of every task's log there as `<start time>-task-<id>.log`: the rows exactly as Gitea received them, with the same secrets masked and the job's result on the last line. Off by default, and what Gitea shows does not change.

act/artifactcache/handler.go

@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@ import (
 	"crypto/hmac"
 	"crypto/rand"
 	"crypto/sha256"
+	"encoding/binary"
 	"encoding/hex"
 	"encoding/json/v2"
 	"errors"
@@ -17,6 +18,7 @@ import (
 	"io"
 	"net"
 	"net/http"
+	"net/http/httputil"
 	"net/url"
 	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
@@ -57,10 +59,9 @@ type JobCredential struct {
 	Repo string `json:"repo"`
 
 	// Results is the instance whose artifact service this server forwards for the job, and
-	// InsecureTLS how the runner reaches it; see results.go. The tags are the wire format a
-	// remote runner registers with.
-	Results     string `json:"results"`
-	InsecureTLS bool   `json:"insecure_tls"`
+	// InsecureTLS how the runner reaches it; see results.go.
+	Results     string `json:"-"`
+	InsecureTLS bool   `json:"-"`
 
 	// PublicURL is this server as a reverse proxy makes the job reach it, not the listen address.
 	PublicURL string `json:"public_url"`
@@ -78,7 +79,8 @@ type credEntry struct {
 
 type Handler struct {
 	dir      string
-	storage  *Storage
+	storage  cacheStorage
+	s3       *s3Storage
 	router   *httprouter.Router
 	listener net.Listener
 	port     int
@@ -88,6 +90,9 @@ type Handler struct {
 	gcing atomic.Bool
 	gcAt  time.Time
 
+	stopSync context.CancelFunc
+	syncing  sync.WaitGroup
+
 	outboundIP string
 
 	// internalSecret guards /_internal/{register,revoke}. When set, a remote
@@ -117,6 +122,8 @@ type Options struct {
 	Dir        string
 	OutboundIP string
 	Port       uint16
+	S3         *S3Options
+	Upstream   string
 
 	// InternalSecret, when non-empty, enables a control-plane API at
 	// /_internal/{register,revoke} that lets a remote runner pre-register the
@@ -129,7 +136,7 @@ type Options struct {
 	Logger logrus.FieldLogger
 }
 
-// StartHandler opens the on-disk cache store and starts the HTTP server.
+// StartHandler starts an embedded cache or forwards cache requests to Upstream.
 func StartHandler(opts Options) (*Handler, error) {
 	dir, logger := opts.Dir, opts.Logger
 	h := &Handler{
@@ -147,6 +154,25 @@ func StartHandler(opts Options) (*Handler, error) {
 	logger = logger.WithField("module", "artifactcache")
 	h.logger = logger
 
+	if opts.OutboundIP != "" {
+		h.outboundIP = opts.OutboundIP
+	} else if ip := common.GetOutboundIP(); ip == nil {
+		return nil, errors.New("unable to determine outbound IP address")
+	} else {
+		h.outboundIP = ip.String()
+	}
+
+	if opts.Upstream != "" {
+		handler, err := h.cacheForwarder(opts.Upstream)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+		if err := h.serve(opts.Port, handler); err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+		return h, nil
+	}
+
 	if dir == "" {
 		home, err := os.UserHomeDir()
 		if err != nil {
@@ -165,13 +191,11 @@ func StartHandler(opts Options) (*Handler, error) {
 		return nil, err
 	}
 	h.storage = storage
-
-	if opts.OutboundIP != "" {
-		h.outboundIP = opts.OutboundIP
-	} else if ip := common.GetOutboundIP(); ip == nil {
-		return nil, errors.New("unable to determine outbound IP address")
-	} else {
-		h.outboundIP = ip.String()
+	if opts.S3 != nil {
+		if h.s3, err = newS3Storage(storage, *opts.S3); err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+		h.storage = h.s3
 	}
 
 	secret, err := loadOrCreateSecret(dir)
@@ -201,34 +225,74 @@ func StartHandler(opts Options) (*Handler, error) {
 
 	h.gcCache()
 
+	if err := h.serve(opts.Port, router); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	if h.s3 != nil {
+		ctx, cancel := context.WithCancel(context.Background())
+		h.stopSync = cancel
+		h.syncing.Go(func() { h.syncMetadata(ctx) })
+	}
+	return h, nil
+}
+
+func (h *Handler) serve(port uint16, handler http.Handler) error {
 	// Listen on all interfaces. Binding to outboundIP only would give no real
 	// security benefit (it is the LAN/internet-facing address either way) and
 	// can break Docker Desktop variants where the host's outbound IP is not
 	// routable from inside the container network. Authentication is enforced
 	// by the bearer middleware and per-repo scoping, not by reachability.
-	listener, err := net.Listen("tcp", fmt.Sprintf(":%d", opts.Port))
+	listener, err := net.Listen("tcp", fmt.Sprintf(":%d", port))
 	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
+		return err
 	}
 	addr, ok := listener.Addr().(*net.TCPAddr)
 	if !ok {
 		listener.Close()
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("cache server listens on %T, want a TCP address", listener.Addr())
+		return fmt.Errorf("cache server listens on %T, want a TCP address", listener.Addr())
 	}
 	h.port = addr.Port
 	server := &http.Server{
 		ReadHeaderTimeout: 2 * time.Second,
-		Handler:           router,
+		Handler:           handler,
 	}
 	go func() {
 		if err := server.Serve(listener); err != nil && errors.Is(err, net.ErrClosed) {
-			logger.Errorf("http serve: %v", err)
+			h.logger.Errorf("http serve: %v", err)
 		}
 	}()
 	h.listener = listener
 	h.server = server
 
-	return h, nil
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (h *Handler) cacheForwarder(upstream string) (http.Handler, error) {
+	target, err := url.Parse(strings.TrimRight(upstream, "/"))
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("parse cache upstream: %w", err)
+	}
+	transport, _ := http.DefaultTransport.(*http.Transport)
+	transport = transport.Clone()
+	transport.MaxIdleConnsPerHost = 64 // parallel block uploads would otherwise redial past the default 2
+	proxy := &httputil.ReverseProxy{
+		Transport: transport,
+		Rewrite: func(r *httputil.ProxyRequest) {
+			r.SetURL(target)
+			r.Out.URL.RawQuery = r.In.URL.RawQuery // Rewrite drops unparsable query params, and signed URLs must pass verbatim.
+		},
+		ErrorHandler: func(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request, err error) {
+			h.logger.Warnf("cache forward %s %s: %v", r.Method, r.URL.Path, err)
+			h.twirpError(w, r, twirpUnavailable, errors.New("cache upstream is unavailable"))
+		},
+	}
+	return http.HandlerFunc(func(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
+		if strings.HasPrefix(r.URL.Path, apiPath+"/") || strings.HasPrefix(r.URL.Path, cacheServiceV2Path+"/") {
+			proxy.ServeHTTP(w, r)
+		} else {
+			h.forwardOrNotFound(w, r)
+		}
+	}), nil
 }
 
 func (h *Handler) ExternalURL() string {
@@ -333,6 +397,10 @@ func (h *Handler) Close() error {
 	if h == nil {
 		return nil
 	}
+	if h.stopSync != nil {
+		h.stopSync()
+		h.syncing.Wait()
+	}
 	var retErr error
 	if h.server != nil {
 		err := h.server.Close()
@@ -366,6 +434,72 @@ func (h *Handler) openDB() (*bolthold.Store, error) {
 	})
 }
 
+// syncMetadata mirrors the bucket into the store until ctx ends, so no request waits on S3 for it.
+func (h *Handler) syncMetadata(ctx context.Context) {
+	ticker := time.NewTicker(metadataSyncInterval)
+	defer ticker.Stop()
+	for {
+		if err := h.importMetadata(ctx); err != nil && ctx.Err() == nil {
+			h.logger.Warnf("sync S3 cache: %v", err)
+		}
+		select {
+		case <-ctx.Done():
+			return
+		case <-ticker.C:
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+// importMetadata lists after snapshotting the store, so an entry committed meanwhile, published before it is stored, stays.
+func (h *Handler) importMetadata(ctx context.Context) error {
+	db, err := h.openDB()
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	local := h.caches(db, bolthold.Where("Complete").Eq(true).Index("Complete"))
+	db.Close()
+
+	published, err := h.s3.published(ctx)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	var gone []*Cache
+	for _, cache := range local {
+		if !published[cache.ID] {
+			gone = append(gone, cache)
+		}
+		delete(published, cache.ID)
+	}
+	added := make([]*Cache, 0, len(published))
+	for id := range published {
+		cache, err := h.s3.fetch(ctx, id)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		added = append(added, cache)
+	}
+
+	db, err = h.openDB()
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	defer db.Close()
+	return db.Bolt().Update(func(tx *bbolt.Tx) error {
+		for _, cache := range added {
+			if err := db.TxUpsert(tx, cache.ID, cache); err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+		}
+		for _, cache := range gone {
+			_ = h.s3.Storage.Remove(cache.ID) // a blob kept on disk before the runner used S3
+			if err := db.TxDelete(tx, cache.ID, cache); err != nil && !errors.Is(err, bolthold.ErrNotFound) {
+				return err
+			}
+		}
+		return nil
+	})
+}
+
 // GET /_apis/artifactcache/cache
 func (h *Handler) find(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request, _ httprouter.Params) {
 	cred := credFromContext(r.Context())
@@ -408,7 +542,7 @@ func (h *Handler) lookupCache(db *bolthold.Store, repo string, keys []string, ve
 		return nil, err
 	}
 	if !ok {
-		_ = db.Delete(cache.ID, cache)
+		h.deleteCache(db, cache)
 		return nil, nil //nolint:nilnil // absence is not an error here
 	}
 	// Handing out a download URL counts as access, or eviction could drop the entry between
@@ -440,7 +574,7 @@ func (h *Handler) reserve(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request, _ httprouter.P
 	now := time.Now().Unix()
 	cache.CreatedAt = now
 	cache.UsedAt = now
-	if err := insertCache(db, cache); err != nil {
+	if err := h.insertCache(db, cache); err != nil {
 		h.responseJSON(w, r, 500, err)
 		return
 	}
@@ -554,6 +688,12 @@ func (h *Handler) commitCache(cache *Cache) error {
 	cache.Size = written
 	cache.Complete = true
 	cache.UsedAt = time.Now().Unix() // a just-written entry counts as accessed, so it cannot be its own eviction victim
+	if h.s3 != nil {
+		if err := h.s3.publish(cache); err != nil {
+			_ = h.storage.Remove(cache.ID)
+			return err
+		}
+	}
 
 	db, err := h.openDB()
 	if err != nil {
@@ -563,6 +703,9 @@ func (h *Handler) commitCache(cache *Cache) error {
 	if err := db.Update(cache.ID, cache); err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
+	if h.s3 != nil {
+		return nil // lifecycle rules on the bucket bound its size
+	}
 	// A commit is the only thing that grows the store, so the only thing that can push the
 	// volume under the floor.
 	h.evictRepo(db, cache.Repo)
@@ -708,8 +851,7 @@ func (h *Handler) internalRegister(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request, _ htt
 		return
 	}
 	h.RegisterJob(body.Token, body.JobCredential)
-	// A server too old to forward answers without this, which is how the caller knows.
-	h.responseJSON(w, r, http.StatusOK, map[string]any{"results_url": h.ResultsURL(body.JobCredential)})
+	h.responseJSON(w, r, http.StatusOK)
 }
 
 // POST /_internal/revoke
@@ -827,7 +969,13 @@ func findExactCache(db *bolthold.Store, repo, key, version string, complete bool
 	return cache, nil
 }
 
-func insertCache(db *bolthold.Store, cache *Cache) error {
+func (h *Handler) insertCache(db *bolthold.Store, cache *Cache) error {
+	if h.s3 != nil {
+		var id [8]byte
+		_, _ = rand.Read(id[:])
+		cache.ID = binary.BigEndian.Uint64(id[:]) >> 11 // IDs must be unique across runners, and v1 clients parse an ID as a JS number
+		return db.Insert(cache.ID, cache)
+	}
 	return db.Bolt().Update(func(tx *bbolt.Tx) error {
 		if err := db.TxInsert(tx, bolthold.NextSequence(), cache); err != nil {
 			return fmt.Errorf("insert cache: %w", err)
@@ -885,6 +1033,8 @@ const (
 	// a stale reservation.
 	uploadStallTimeout = 5 * time.Minute
 
+	metadataSyncInterval = 30 * time.Second
+
 	defaultMinFreeDisk = 1024 * miB
 )
 
@@ -932,6 +1082,9 @@ func (h *Handler) gcCache() {
 	defer db.Close()
 
 	h.evictIncomplete(db)
+	if h.s3 != nil {
+		return // lifecycle rules on the bucket expire its entries
+	}
 	h.evictExpired(db)
 	h.evictSuperseded(db)
 	h.evictOversized(db)
@@ -1129,7 +1282,11 @@ func totalSize(caches []*Cache) int64 {
 // deleteCache drops an entry and its bytes, reporting whether it went fully. The blob goes
 // first, so a failed unlink leaves the row for the next sweep instead of orphaning bytes.
 func (h *Handler) deleteCache(db *bolthold.Store, cache *Cache) bool {
-	if err := h.storage.Remove(cache.ID); err != nil {
+	storage := h.storage
+	if h.s3 != nil && !cache.Complete {
+		storage = h.s3.Storage // an upload not yet committed has nothing in the bucket
+	}
+	if err := storage.Remove(cache.ID); err != nil {
 		h.logger.Warnf("remove cache blob: %v", err)
 		return false
 	}

act/artifactcache/handler_test.go

@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
 	"net/http"
+	"net/http/httptest"
 	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"strings"
@@ -56,6 +57,55 @@ func TestHandler_ExternalURL(t *testing.T) {
 	assert.Equal(t, "http://[2001:db8::1]:8080", (&Handler{outboundIP: "2001:db8::1", port: 8080}).ExternalURL())
 }
 
+func TestHandler_Upstream(t *testing.T) {
+	var upstream *httptest.Server
+	upstream = httptest.NewServer(http.HandlerFunc(func(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
+		assert.Equal(t, http.MethodPut, r.Method)
+		assert.Equal(t, "/cache%20server"+blobPath+"/%34%32", r.URL.EscapedPath())
+		assert.Equal(t, "sig=opaque%2Fvalue&raw=a;b", r.URL.RawQuery)
+		assert.Equal(t, strings.TrimPrefix(upstream.URL, "http://"), r.Host)
+		assert.Equal(t, "Bearer unregistered", r.Header.Get("Authorization"))
+		_, err := io.Copy(w, r.Body)
+		assert.NoError(t, err)
+	}))
+	t.Cleanup(upstream.Close)
+	dir := filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "artifactcache")
+	handler, err := StartHandler(Options{
+		Dir:        dir,
+		OutboundIP: "127.0.0.1",
+		Upstream:   upstream.URL + "/cache%20server//",
+	})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	t.Cleanup(func() { require.NoError(t, handler.Close()) })
+
+	req, err := http.NewRequestWithContext(t.Context(), http.MethodPut,
+		handler.ExternalURL()+blobPath+"/%34%32?sig=opaque%2Fvalue&raw=a;b", strings.NewReader("cache content"))
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	req.Header.Set("Authorization", "Bearer unregistered")
+	resp, err := http.DefaultClient.Do(req)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	forwarded, err := io.ReadAll(resp.Body)
+	resp.Body.Close()
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Equal(t, "cache content", string(forwarded))
+
+	resp, err = http.Post(handler.ExternalURL()+internalPath+"/register", "application/json", nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	resp.Body.Close()
+	assert.Equal(t, http.StatusNotFound, resp.StatusCode)
+
+	upstream.Close()
+	resp, err = http.Post(handler.ExternalURL()+cacheServiceV2Path+"/CreateCacheEntry", "application/json", strings.NewReader(`{}`))
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	var failure map[string]string
+	err = json.UnmarshalRead(resp.Body, &failure)
+	resp.Body.Close()
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Equal(t, http.StatusServiceUnavailable, resp.StatusCode)
+	assert.Equal(t, map[string]string{"code": "unavailable", "msg": "cache upstream is unavailable"}, failure)
+	assert.NoDirExists(t, dir)
+}
+
 func TestHandler(t *testing.T) {
 	dir := filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "artifactcache")
 	handler, err := StartHandler(Options{Dir: dir})
@@ -814,7 +864,7 @@ func TestHandler_gcCache(t *testing.T) {
 	db, err := handler.openDB()
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	for _, c := range cases {
-		require.NoError(t, insertCache(db, c.Cache))
+		require.NoError(t, handler.insertCache(db, c.Cache))
 	}
 	require.NoError(t, db.Close())
 
@@ -986,7 +1036,7 @@ func TestHandler_SweepKeepsEntryWhenBlobSurvives(t *testing.T) {
 	handler := newTestHandler(t, Policy{Retention: testRetention}, cache)
 
 	// A non-empty directory where the blob belongs makes os.Remove fail on every platform.
-	blob := handler.storage.filename(cache.ID)
+	blob := handler.storage.(*Storage).filename(cache.ID)
 	require.NoError(t, os.MkdirAll(blob, 0o755))
 	require.NoError(t, os.WriteFile(filepath.Join(blob, "held"), []byte("x"), 0o600))
 
@@ -1069,24 +1119,28 @@ func TestHandler_touchCacheSkipsFreshCompletedEntries(t *testing.T) {
 // newTestHandler starts a handler with testToken registered, seeded with entries.
 func newTestHandler(t *testing.T, policy Policy, entries ...*Cache) *Handler {
 	t.Helper()
-	handler, err := StartHandler(Options{
-		Dir:        filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "artifactcache"),
-		OutboundIP: "127.0.0.1",
-		Policy:     policy,
-	})
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-	t.Cleanup(func() { require.NoError(t, handler.Close()) })
-	handler.RegisterJob(testToken, JobCredential{Repo: testRepo})
+	handler := startTestHandler(t, Options{Policy: policy})
 
 	db, err := handler.openDB()
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	for _, e := range entries {
-		require.NoError(t, insertCache(db, e))
+		require.NoError(t, handler.insertCache(db, e))
 	}
 	require.NoError(t, db.Close())
 	return handler
 }
 
+func startTestHandler(t *testing.T, opts Options) *Handler {
+	t.Helper()
+	opts.Dir = filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "artifactcache")
+	opts.OutboundIP = "127.0.0.1"
+	handler, err := StartHandler(opts)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	t.Cleanup(func() { require.NoError(t, handler.Close()) })
+	handler.RegisterJob(testToken, JobCredential{Repo: testRepo})
+	return handler
+}
+
 // keptKeys reports which of entries are still in the store.
 func keptKeys(t *testing.T, handler *Handler, entries []*Cache) []string {
 	t.Helper()
@@ -1427,8 +1481,8 @@ func TestHandler_GC_PerRepoDedup(t *testing.T) {
 	stale := time.Now().Add(-inUseGrace - time.Minute).Unix()
 	a := &Cache{Repo: "owner/repoA", Key: key, Version: version, Complete: true, CreatedAt: stale, UsedAt: stale, Size: 1}
 	b := &Cache{Repo: "owner/repoB", Key: key, Version: version, Complete: true, CreatedAt: now, UsedAt: now, Size: 1}
-	require.NoError(t, insertCache(db, a))
-	require.NoError(t, insertCache(db, b))
+	require.NoError(t, handler.insertCache(db, a))
+	require.NoError(t, handler.insertCache(db, b))
 	// Write the backing blobs so the dedup deletion has something to remove.
 	require.NoError(t, handler.storage.Write(a.ID, 0, strings.NewReader("a")))
 	_, err = handler.storage.Commit(a.ID, 1)
@@ -1522,7 +1576,10 @@ func TestHandler_InternalAPI_AuthAndUsage(t *testing.T) {
 		}
 
 		assert.Equal(t, http.StatusUnauthorized, probe("via-internal-api"))
-		assert.Equal(t, http.StatusOK, post("/_internal/register", secret, `{"token":"via-internal-api","repo":"owner/repo"}`))
+		assert.Equal(t, http.StatusOK, post("/_internal/register", secret, `{"token":"via-internal-api","repo":"owner/repo","public_url":"http://runner.example","results":"https://gitea.example","insecure_tls":true}`))
+		cred, ok := handler.lookupCredential("via-internal-api")
+		require.True(t, ok)
+		assert.Equal(t, JobCredential{Repo: testRepo, PublicURL: "http://runner.example"}, cred)
 		assert.NotEqual(t, http.StatusUnauthorized, probe("via-internal-api"))
 		assert.Equal(t, http.StatusOK, post("/_internal/revoke", secret, `{"token":"via-internal-api"}`))
 		assert.Equal(t, http.StatusUnauthorized, probe("via-internal-api"))

act/artifactcache/handler_v2.go

@@ -40,6 +40,7 @@ const (
 	blobUploadURLTTL = time.Hour
 
 	twirpInternal        = "internal"
+	twirpUnavailable     = "unavailable"
 	twirpUnauthenticated = "unauthenticated"
 )
 
@@ -111,7 +112,7 @@ func (h *Handler) v2CreateCacheEntry(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request, _ h
 		CreatedAt: now,
 		UsedAt:    now,
 	}
-	if err := insertCache(db, cache); err != nil {
+	if err := h.insertCache(db, cache); err != nil {
 		h.twirpError(w, r, twirpInternal, err)
 		return
 	}
@@ -261,6 +262,8 @@ func (h *Handler) twirpError(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request, code string
 	switch code {
 	case twirpInternal:
 		status = http.StatusInternalServerError
+	case twirpUnavailable:
+		status = http.StatusServiceUnavailable
 	case twirpUnauthenticated:
 		status = http.StatusUnauthorized
 	}

act/artifactcache/results.go

@@ -17,9 +17,6 @@ import (
 // Gitea implements only the artifact half of it. Forwarding that half from here makes this origin
 // the whole service, so ACTIONS_RESULTS_URL can point at it truthfully, which is what the clients
 // this runner cannot patch need, docker buildx among them.
-//
-// The instance to forward to travels with the job registration rather than with configuration, so
-// a cache server shared between runners serves each of their instances.
 const artifactServicePath = "/twirp/github.actions.results.api.v1.ArtifactService/"
 
 // forwardOrNotFound is the router's fallback: the artifact service of the instance the job
@@ -81,9 +78,6 @@ func (h *Handler) mustProxy(r *http.Request, cred JobCredential, target *url.URL
 		return true
 	}
 	scheme := r.Header.Get("X-Forwarded-Proto")
-	if base, err := url.Parse(cred.PublicURL); err == nil && base.Scheme != "" {
-		scheme = base.Scheme
-	}
 	if scheme == "" {
 		scheme = "http"
 	}
@@ -98,4 +92,4 @@ func mergeQuery(target, request string) string {
 }
 
 // insecureTransport is shared, because a transport per request would pool no connections.
-var insecureTransport = &http.Transport{TLSClientConfig: &tls.Config{InsecureSkipVerify: true}} //nolint:gosec // the runner reaches its instance on the operator's say-so
+var insecureTransport = &http.Transport{Proxy: http.ProxyFromEnvironment, TLSClientConfig: &tls.Config{InsecureSkipVerify: true}} //nolint:gosec // the runner reaches its instance on the operator's say-so

act/artifactcache/results_test.go

@@ -54,11 +54,11 @@ func TestFrontResultsService(t *testing.T) {
 	assert.Contains(t, body["msg"], "bearer")
 	assert.NotEmpty(t, body["msg"])
 
-	defer handler.RegisterJob(token, JobCredential{Repo: "owner/repo", Results: gitea.URL, PublicURL: "https://cache.example"})()
+	defer handler.RegisterJob(token, JobCredential{Repo: "owner/repo", Results: selfSigned.URL, InsecureTLS: true})()
 
 	status, _ = post(rpc)
-	require.Equal(t, http.StatusOK, status, "a registered https public URL onto an http instance must proxy, not redirect")
-	assert.Equal(t, strings.TrimPrefix(gitea.URL, "http://"), gotHost, "Gitea must see the host it mints its URLs from")
+	require.Equal(t, http.StatusOK, status, "an http job reaching an https instance must proxy")
+	assert.Equal(t, strings.TrimPrefix(selfSigned.URL, "https://"), gotHost, "Gitea must see the host it mints its URLs from")
 	assert.Empty(t, gotProto, "a forwarded scheme would make an https Gitea mint http URLs")
 	assert.Equal(t, rpc, gotPath)
 
@@ -87,15 +87,15 @@ func TestFrontResultsService(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		{
 			name: "a trusted https instance is reached by the job itself",
-			cred: JobCredential{Results: selfSigned.URL, PublicURL: "https://cache.example"}, want: http.StatusTemporaryRedirect,
+			cred: JobCredential{Results: selfSigned.URL}, forwardedProto: "https", want: http.StatusTemporaryRedirect,
 		},
 		{
 			name: "the job does not share this server's disregard for the certificate",
-			cred: JobCredential{Results: selfSigned.URL, PublicURL: "https://cache.example", InsecureTLS: true}, want: http.StatusOK,
+			cred: JobCredential{Results: selfSigned.URL, InsecureTLS: true}, forwardedProto: "https", want: http.StatusOK,
 		},
 		{name: "an http job is not redirected to an https instance", cred: JobCredential{Results: selfSigned.URL}, want: http.StatusInternalServerError},
 		{
-			name: "a runner too old to send its public URL leaves the terminator to say so",
+			name: "a forwarded https scheme onto an http instance is proxied",
 			cred: JobCredential{Results: gitea.URL}, forwardedProto: "https", want: http.StatusOK,
 		},
 		{

act/artifactcache/s3_storage.go

@@ -0,0 +1,326 @@
+// Copyright 2026 The Gitea Authors. All rights reserved.
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+
+package artifactcache
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"cmp"
+	"context"
+	"crypto/hmac"
+	"crypto/sha256"
+	"encoding/json/v2"
+	"encoding/xml"
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"io"
+	"io/fs"
+	"maps"
+	"net/http"
+	"net/url"
+	"os"
+	"path"
+	"slices"
+	"strconv"
+	"strings"
+	"time"
+)
+
+// S3Options configures the bucket that stores completed cache entries.
+type S3Options struct {
+	Endpoint  string
+	Region    string
+	Bucket    string
+	Prefix    string
+	PathStyle *bool // nil uses virtual-hosted requests on AWS and path-style ones elsewhere
+	AccessKey string
+	SecretKey string
+}
+
+type cacheStorage interface {
+	Exist(uint64) (bool, error)
+	Write(uint64, int64, io.Reader) error
+	WriteBlock(uint64, string, io.Reader) error
+	OrderBlocks(uint64, []string) error
+	Commit(uint64, int64) (int64, error)
+	Serve(http.ResponseWriter, *http.Request, uint64)
+	Remove(uint64) error
+}
+
+const s3PartSize = 5 << 30 // the largest part S3 accepts
+
+// s3Storage stages uploads on disk and keeps completed entries and their metadata in a bucket.
+type s3Storage struct {
+	*Storage
+	client    *http.Client
+	bucketURL *url.URL
+	opts      S3Options
+}
+
+type s3Part struct {
+	PartNumber int
+	ETag       string
+}
+
+func newS3Storage(staging *Storage, opts S3Options) (*s3Storage, error) {
+	endpoint, err := url.Parse(opts.Endpoint)
+	if err != nil || endpoint.Host == "" || (endpoint.Scheme != "http" && endpoint.Scheme != "https") {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("invalid S3 endpoint %q", opts.Endpoint)
+	}
+	transport, _ := http.DefaultTransport.(*http.Transport)
+	transport = transport.Clone()
+	transport.ResponseHeaderTimeout = time.Minute // a stalled endpoint must not hold the store forever
+	pathStyle := !strings.HasSuffix(endpoint.Hostname(), ".amazonaws.com")
+	if opts.PathStyle != nil {
+		pathStyle = *opts.PathStyle
+	}
+	if pathStyle {
+		endpoint.Path = "/" + opts.Bucket
+	} else {
+		endpoint.Host = opts.Bucket + "." + endpoint.Host
+		endpoint.Path = "/"
+	}
+	opts.Region = cmp.Or(opts.Region, "us-east-1")
+	return &s3Storage{Storage: staging, client: &http.Client{Transport: transport}, bucketURL: endpoint, opts: opts}, nil
+}
+
+func (s *s3Storage) blobKey(id uint64) string {
+	return path.Join(s.opts.Prefix, "blobs", strconv.FormatUint(id, 10))
+}
+
+func (s *s3Storage) metadataDir() string {
+	return path.Join(s.opts.Prefix, "metadata") + "/"
+}
+
+func (s *s3Storage) metadataKey(id uint64) string {
+	return s.metadataDir() + strconv.FormatUint(id, 10) + ".json"
+}
+
+func (s *s3Storage) url(key string, query url.Values) *url.URL {
+	u := *s.bucketURL
+	u.Path = path.Join(u.Path, key)
+	u.RawPath = strings.NewReplacer("+", "%20", "%2F", "/").Replace(url.QueryEscape(u.Path)) // SigV4 encoding
+	u.RawQuery = strings.ReplaceAll(query.Encode(), "+", "%20")
+	return &u
+}
+
+// sign authorizes req with AWS Signature Version 4, leaving the payload unsigned so bodies can stream.
+// https://docs.aws.amazon.com/AmazonS3/latest/API/sig-v4-header-based-auth.html
+func (s *s3Storage) sign(req *http.Request, now time.Time) {
+	date := now.UTC().Format("20060102T150405Z")
+	req.Header.Set("X-Amz-Date", date)
+	if req.Header.Get("X-Amz-Content-Sha256") == "" {
+		req.Header.Set("X-Amz-Content-Sha256", "UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD")
+	}
+	headers := map[string]string{"host": req.URL.Host}
+	for name, values := range req.Header {
+		if name = strings.ToLower(name); strings.HasPrefix(name, "x-amz-") {
+			headers[name] = strings.Join(values, ",")
+		}
+	}
+	names := slices.Sorted(maps.Keys(headers))
+	canonical := []string{req.Method, req.URL.EscapedPath(), req.URL.RawQuery}
+	for _, name := range names {
+		canonical = append(canonical, name+":"+headers[name])
+	}
+	canonical = append(canonical, "", strings.Join(names, ";"), req.Header.Get("X-Amz-Content-Sha256"))
+	scope := date[:8] + "/" + s.opts.Region + "/s3/aws4_request"
+	signature := []byte("AWS4" + s.opts.SecretKey)
+	for _, data := range []string{date[:8], s.opts.Region, "s3", "aws4_request", fmt.Sprintf("AWS4-HMAC-SHA256\n%s\n%s\n%x", date, scope, sha256.Sum256([]byte(strings.Join(canonical, "\n"))))} { // key derivation, the last round signs
+		mac := hmac.New(sha256.New, signature)
+		_, _ = mac.Write([]byte(data))
+		signature = mac.Sum(nil)
+	}
+	req.Header.Set("Authorization", fmt.Sprintf("AWS4-HMAC-SHA256 Credential=%s/%s,SignedHeaders=%s,Signature=%x", s.opts.AccessKey, scope, strings.Join(names, ";"), signature))
+}
+
+// do returns the response to a signed request when it succeeded, fs.ErrNotExist for a missing key.
+func (s *s3Storage) do(ctx context.Context, method, key string, query url.Values, header http.Header, body io.Reader) (*http.Response, error) {
+	var size int64
+	if sized, ok := body.(interface{ Size() int64 }); ok {
+		size = sized.Size()
+	}
+	if size == 0 {
+		body = nil
+	}
+	req, err := http.NewRequestWithContext(ctx, method, s.url(key, query).String(), body)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	req.ContentLength = size
+	maps.Copy(req.Header, header)
+	s.sign(req, time.Now())
+	resp, err := s.client.Do(req)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	if resp.StatusCode < http.StatusMultipleChoices {
+		return resp, nil
+	}
+	defer drain(resp)
+	var failure struct{ Code, Message string }
+	_ = xml.NewDecoder(resp.Body).Decode(&failure)
+	if resp.StatusCode == http.StatusNotFound && (failure.Code == "NoSuchKey" || failure.Code == "" && method == http.MethodHead) {
+		return nil, fs.ErrNotExist
+	}
+	return nil, fmt.Errorf("S3 %s %s: %s", method, key, cmp.Or(strings.TrimSpace(failure.Code+" "+failure.Message), resp.Status))
+}
+
+func (s *s3Storage) call(ctx context.Context, method, key string, query url.Values, body io.Reader, result any) (http.Header, error) {
+	resp, err := s.do(ctx, method, key, query, nil, body)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	defer drain(resp)
+	if result == nil {
+		return resp.Header, nil
+	}
+	return resp.Header, xml.NewDecoder(resp.Body).Decode(result)
+}
+
+// drain reads a response to its end before closing it, so its connection gets reused.
+func drain(resp *http.Response) {
+	_, _ = io.Copy(io.Discard, resp.Body)
+	_ = resp.Body.Close()
+}
+
+func (s *s3Storage) Exist(id uint64) (bool, error) {
+	_, err := s.call(context.Background(), http.MethodHead, s.blobKey(id), nil, nil, nil)
+	if errors.Is(err, fs.ErrNotExist) {
+		return false, nil
+	}
+	return err == nil, err
+}
+
+func (s *s3Storage) Commit(id uint64, size int64) (int64, error) {
+	written, err := s.Storage.Commit(id, size)
+	if err != nil {
+		return 0, err
+	}
+	defer func() { _ = s.Storage.Remove(id) }()
+	file, err := os.Open(s.filename(id))
+	if err != nil {
+		return 0, err
+	}
+	defer file.Close()
+	if err := s.upload(context.Background(), s.blobKey(id), file, written); err != nil {
+		return 0, fmt.Errorf("upload cache to S3: %w", err)
+	}
+	return written, nil
+}
+
+// upload always goes in parts, the only way S3 takes an object over 5 GiB.
+func (s *s3Storage) upload(ctx context.Context, key string, file io.ReaderAt, size int64) error {
+	var created struct {
+		UploadID string `xml:"UploadId"`
+	}
+	if _, err := s.call(ctx, http.MethodPost, key, url.Values{"uploads": {""}}, nil, &created); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	var completion struct {
+		XMLName xml.Name `xml:"CompleteMultipartUpload"`
+		Parts   []s3Part `xml:"Part"`
+	}
+	for offset := int64(0); offset == 0 || offset < size; offset += s3PartSize {
+		number, length := len(completion.Parts)+1, min(s3PartSize, size-offset)
+		query := url.Values{"partNumber": {strconv.Itoa(number)}, "uploadId": {created.UploadID}}
+		header, err := s.call(ctx, http.MethodPut, key, query, io.NewSectionReader(file, offset, length), nil)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		completion.Parts = append(completion.Parts, s3Part{number, header.Get("ETag")})
+	}
+	body, err := xml.Marshal(completion)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	var result struct{ Code, Message string } // a completion can fail after its 200 status
+	if _, err := s.call(ctx, http.MethodPost, key, url.Values{"uploadId": {created.UploadID}}, bytes.NewReader(body), &result); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	if result.Code != "" {
+		return fmt.Errorf("S3 complete upload %s: %s %s", key, result.Code, result.Message)
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (s *s3Storage) Serve(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request, id uint64) {
+	header := http.Header{}
+	if byteRange := r.Header.Get("Range"); byteRange != "" {
+		header.Set("Range", byteRange)
+	}
+	resp, err := s.do(r.Context(), http.MethodGet, s.blobKey(id), nil, header, nil)
+	if errors.Is(err, fs.ErrNotExist) {
+		http.NotFound(w, r)
+		return
+	} else if err != nil {
+		http.Error(w, "read cache from S3", http.StatusBadGateway)
+		return
+	}
+	defer resp.Body.Close()
+	for _, name := range []string{"Content-Length", "Content-Range"} {
+		if value := resp.Header.Get(name); value != "" {
+			w.Header().Set(name, value)
+		}
+	}
+	w.WriteHeader(resp.StatusCode)
+	_, _ = io.Copy(w, resp.Body)
+}
+
+// Remove unpublishes an entry before deleting its blob, so no runner imports it without its bytes.
+func (s *s3Storage) Remove(id uint64) error {
+	for _, key := range []string{s.metadataKey(id), s.blobKey(id)} {
+		if _, err := s.call(context.Background(), http.MethodDelete, key, nil, nil, nil); err != nil && !errors.Is(err, fs.ErrNotExist) {
+			return fmt.Errorf("remove %s from S3: %w", key, err)
+		}
+	}
+	return s.Storage.Remove(id)
+}
+
+func (s *s3Storage) publish(cache *Cache) error {
+	data, err := json.Marshal(cache)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	if _, err := s.call(context.Background(), http.MethodPut, s.metadataKey(cache.ID), nil, bytes.NewReader(data), nil); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("publish cache to S3: %w", err)
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (s *s3Storage) published(ctx context.Context) (map[uint64]bool, error) {
+	ids := make(map[uint64]bool)
+	query := url.Values{"list-type": {"2"}, "prefix": {s.metadataDir()}}
+	for {
+		var page struct {
+			Contents              []struct{ Key string }
+			IsTruncated           bool
+			NextContinuationToken string
+		}
+		if _, err := s.call(ctx, http.MethodGet, "", query, nil, &page); err != nil {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("list S3 cache metadata: %w", err)
+		}
+		for _, object := range page.Contents {
+			if id, err := strconv.ParseUint(strings.TrimSuffix(strings.TrimPrefix(object.Key, s.metadataDir()), ".json"), 10, 64); err == nil {
+				ids[id] = true
+			}
+		}
+		if !page.IsTruncated {
+			return ids, nil
+		}
+		query.Set("continuation-token", page.NextContinuationToken)
+	}
+}
+
+func (s *s3Storage) fetch(ctx context.Context, id uint64) (*Cache, error) {
+	resp, err := s.do(ctx, http.MethodGet, s.metadataKey(id), nil, nil, nil)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	defer resp.Body.Close()
+	cache := &Cache{}
+	if err := json.UnmarshalRead(resp.Body, cache); err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("read S3 cache metadata %d: %w", id, err)
+	}
+	return cache, nil
+}

act/artifactcache/s3_storage_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+// Copyright 2026 The Gitea Authors. All rights reserved.
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+
+package artifactcache
+
+import (
+	"net/http"
+	"net/http/httptest"
+	"testing"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/johannesboyne/gofakes3"
+	"github.com/johannesboyne/gofakes3/backend/s3mem"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+)
+
+func TestHandler_S3SharesEntriesAndDropsExpiredOnes(t *testing.T) {
+	backend := s3mem.New()
+	require.NoError(t, backend.CreateBucket("cache"))
+	server := httptest.NewServer(gofakes3.New(backend).Server())
+	t.Cleanup(server.Close)
+	opts := Options{S3: &S3Options{Endpoint: server.URL, Bucket: "cache", Prefix: "runners", AccessKey: "key", SecretKey: "secret"}}
+	saver, restorer := startTestHandler(t, opts), startTestHandler(t, opts)
+	entry := map[string]any{"key": "deps", "version": "v1"}
+
+	finalized, _ := saveV2(t, saver, "deps", "v1", []byte("archive"))
+	require.Equal(t, true, finalized["ok"])
+	require.NoError(t, restorer.importMetadata(t.Context()))
+	found := v2Call(t, restorer, testClient, "GetCacheEntryDownloadURL", entry)
+	require.Equal(t, true, found["ok"])
+	assert.Equal(t, []byte("archive"), getURL(t, found["signed_download_url"].(string)))
+
+	require.NoError(t, backend.ForceDeleteBucket("cache"))
+	require.NoError(t, backend.CreateBucket("cache"))
+	require.NoError(t, restorer.importMetadata(t.Context()))
+	assert.Equal(t, true, v2Call(t, restorer, testClient, "CreateCacheEntry", entry)["ok"])
+}
+
+func TestS3StorageSignsLikeAWS(t *testing.T) {
+	storage := &s3Storage{opts: S3Options{Region: "us-east-1", AccessKey: "AKIAIOSFODNN7EXAMPLE", SecretKey: "wJalrXUtnFEMI/K7MDENG/bPxRfiCYEXAMPLEKEY"}}
+	req := httptest.NewRequest(http.MethodGet, "https://examplebucket.s3.amazonaws.com/?max-keys=2&prefix=J", nil)
+	req.Header.Set("X-Amz-Content-Sha256", "e3b0c44298fc1c149afbf4c8996fb92427ae41e4649b934ca495991b7852b855")
+	storage.sign(req, time.Date(2013, 5, 24, 0, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC))
+	assert.Equal(t, "AWS4-HMAC-SHA256 Credential=AKIAIOSFODNN7EXAMPLE/20130524/us-east-1/s3/aws4_request,SignedHeaders=host;x-amz-content-sha256;x-amz-date,Signature=34b48302e7b5fa45bde8084f4b7868a86f0a534bc59db6670ed5711ef69dc6f7", req.Header.Get("Authorization"))
+}

act/common/git/git.go

@@ -9,11 +9,13 @@ import (
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
+	nethttp "net/http"
 	"os"
 	"path"
 	"regexp"
 	"strings"
 	"sync"
+	"time"
 
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/common"
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/lock"
@@ -22,6 +24,8 @@ import (
 	"github.com/go-git/go-git/v5/config"
 	"github.com/go-git/go-git/v5/plumbing"
 	"github.com/go-git/go-git/v5/plumbing/storer"
+	"github.com/go-git/go-git/v5/plumbing/transport"
+	"github.com/go-git/go-git/v5/plumbing/transport/client"
 	"github.com/go-git/go-git/v5/plumbing/transport/http"
 	"github.com/mattn/go-isatty"
 	log "github.com/sirupsen/logrus"
@@ -38,6 +42,20 @@ var (
 	ErrShortRef = errors.New("short SHA references are not supported")
 )
 
+func init() {
+	httpClient := newHTTPClient(&nethttp.HTTP2Config{SendPingTimeout: 30 * time.Second})
+	client.InstallProtocol("http", httpClient)
+	client.InstallProtocol("https", httpClient)
+}
+
+// newHTTPClient pings idle HTTP/2 connections to drop stalled ones.
+func newHTTPClient(h2 *nethttp.HTTP2Config) transport.Transport {
+	defaultTransport, _ := nethttp.DefaultTransport.(*nethttp.Transport)
+	httpTransport := defaultTransport.Clone()
+	httpTransport.HTTP2 = h2
+	return http.NewClient(&nethttp.Client{Transport: httpTransport})
+}
+
 // AcquireCloneLock returns an unlock function after locking the per-directory mutex for dir.
 // Only concurrent operations targeting the same directory are serialized; clones into different directories run in parallel.
 // Callers reading files inside dir (e.g. tarring a checked-out action into a job container) must hold this lock too,
@@ -438,10 +456,11 @@ func cloneAtDepth(ctx context.Context, input NewGitCloneExecutorInput, opts git.
 				return nil, err
 			}
 		} else {
-			for _, refName := range []plumbing.ReferenceName{
-				plumbing.NewBranchReferenceName(input.Ref),
-				plumbing.NewTagReferenceName(input.Ref),
-			} {
+			refNames := []plumbing.ReferenceName{plumbing.NewBranchReferenceName(input.Ref), plumbing.NewTagReferenceName(input.Ref)}
+			if input.Ref == plumbing.HEAD.String() || strings.HasPrefix(input.Ref, "refs/") {
+				refNames = []plumbing.ReferenceName{plumbing.ReferenceName(input.Ref)} // HEAD is the remote's default branch
+			}
+			for _, refName := range refNames {
 				shallowOpts := opts
 				shallowOpts.Depth = input.Depth
 				shallowOpts.SingleBranch = true

act/common/git/git_test.go

@@ -6,7 +6,9 @@ package git
 
 import (
 	"context"
+	"crypto/tls"
 	"fmt"
+	"io"
 	"net/http"
 	"net/http/httptest"
 	"os"
@@ -756,3 +758,25 @@ func TestNewGitCloneExecutorFetchHonoursContext(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Fatal("fetch ignored context cancellation")
 	}
 }
+
+func TestNewGitCloneExecutorFailsOnSilentHTTP2Connection(t *testing.T) {
+	server := httptest.NewUnstartedServer(nil)
+	server.EnableHTTP2 = true
+	server.Config.TLSNextProto = map[string]func(*http.Server, *tls.Conn, http.Handler){
+		"h2": func(_ *http.Server, conn *tls.Conn, _ http.Handler) { _, _ = io.Copy(io.Discard, conn) },
+	}
+	server.StartTLS()
+	t.Cleanup(server.Close)
+
+	previous := gogitclient.Protocols["https"]
+	gogitclient.InstallProtocol("https", newHTTPClient(&http.HTTP2Config{SendPingTimeout: 50 * time.Millisecond, PingTimeout: 50 * time.Millisecond}))
+	t.Cleanup(func() { gogitclient.InstallProtocol("https", previous) })
+
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(t.Context(), 10*time.Second)
+	defer cancel()
+	err := NewGitCloneExecutor(NewGitCloneExecutorInput{
+		URL: server.URL + "/action", Ref: "main", Dir: filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "action"), InsecureSkipTLS: true,
+	})(ctx)
+	require.Error(t, err)
+	require.NoError(t, ctx.Err())
+}

act/common/outbound_ip.go

@@ -10,6 +10,11 @@ import (
 	"strings"
 )
 
+type interfaceIP struct {
+	net.IP
+	net.Interface
+}
+
 // GetOutboundIP returns an outbound IP address of this machine.
 // It tries to access the internet and returns the local IP address of the connection.
 // If the machine cannot access the internet, it returns a preferred IP address from network interfaces.
@@ -26,11 +31,7 @@ func GetOutboundIP() net.IP {
 
 	// So the machine cannot access the internet. Pick an IP address from network interfaces.
 	if ifs, err := net.Interfaces(); err == nil {
-		type IP struct {
-			net.IP
-			net.Interface
-		}
-		var ips []IP
+		var ips []interfaceIP
 		for _, i := range ifs {
 			if addrs, err := i.Addrs(); err == nil {
 				for _, addr := range addrs {
@@ -42,40 +43,45 @@ func GetOutboundIP() net.IP {
 						ip = v.IP
 					}
 					if ip.IsGlobalUnicast() {
-						ips = append(ips, IP{ip, i})
+						ips = append(ips, interfaceIP{ip, i})
 					}
 				}
 			}
 		}
-		if len(ips) > 1 {
-			sort.Slice(ips, func(i, j int) bool {
-				ifi := ips[i].Interface
-				ifj := ips[j].Interface
-
-				// ethernet is preferred
-				if vi, vj := strings.HasPrefix(ifi.Name, "e"), strings.HasPrefix(ifj.Name, "e"); vi != vj {
-					return vi
-				}
-
-				ipi := ips[i].IP
-				ipj := ips[j].IP
-
-				// IPv4 is preferred
-				if vi, vj := ipi.To4() != nil, ipj.To4() != nil; vi != vj {
-					return vi
-				}
-
-				// en0 is preferred to en1
-				if ifi.Name != ifj.Name {
-					return ifi.Name < ifj.Name
-				}
-
-				// fallback
-				return ipi.String() < ipj.String()
-			})
-			return ips[0].IP
-		}
+		return preferredIP(ips)
 	}
 
 	return nil
 }
+
+func preferredIP(ips []interfaceIP) net.IP {
+	if len(ips) == 0 {
+		return nil
+	}
+	sort.Slice(ips, func(i, j int) bool {
+		ifi := ips[i].Interface
+		ifj := ips[j].Interface
+
+		// ethernet is preferred
+		if vi, vj := strings.HasPrefix(ifi.Name, "e"), strings.HasPrefix(ifj.Name, "e"); vi != vj {
+			return vi
+		}
+
+		ipi := ips[i].IP
+		ipj := ips[j].IP
+
+		// IPv4 is preferred
+		if vi, vj := ipi.To4() != nil, ipj.To4() != nil; vi != vj {
+			return vi
+		}
+
+		// en0 is preferred to en1
+		if ifi.Name != ifj.Name {
+			return ifi.Name < ifj.Name
+		}
+
+		// fallback
+		return ipi.String() < ipj.String()
+	})
+	return ips[0].IP
+}

act/common/outbound_ip_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+// Copyright 2026 The Gitea Authors. All rights reserved.
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+
+package common
+
+import (
+	"net"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
+)
+
+func TestPreferredIP(t *testing.T) {
+	assert.Nil(t, preferredIP(nil))
+	assert.Equal(t, net.ParseIP("2001:db8::1"), preferredIP([]interfaceIP{{IP: net.ParseIP("2001:db8::1")}}))
+	assert.Equal(t, net.ParseIP("2001:db8::1"), preferredIP([]interfaceIP{
+		{IP: net.ParseIP("192.0.2.1"), Name: "wlan0"},
+		{IP: net.ParseIP("2001:db8::1"), Name: "eth0"},
+	}))
+}

act/container/container_types.go

@@ -9,6 +9,8 @@ import (
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
+	"path"
+	"strings"
 	"sync"
 	"sync/atomic"
 
@@ -73,6 +75,9 @@ const (
 	HealthUnhealthy = string(container.Unhealthy)
 )
 
+// marks what a runner creates for its jobs, telling its leftovers from another runner's
+const runnerUUIDLabel = "com.gitea.runner.uuid"
+
 // ErrContainerNotFound reports a container the daemon no longer knows. Its text is a
 // fragment, missingContainerError composes it into the message every operation shares.
 var ErrContainerNotFound = errors.New("does not exist")
@@ -107,6 +112,16 @@ type Info struct {
 	Mounts       map[string]string // container path to its source on the daemon
 }
 
+// DaemonPath maps target to its daemon path through the nearest mount with a source, empty without one.
+func (info *Info) DaemonPath(target string) string {
+	for dir := target; dir != "/" && dir != "."; dir = path.Dir(dir) {
+		if source := info.Mounts[dir]; source != "" {
+			return path.Join(source, strings.TrimPrefix(target, dir))
+		}
+	}
+	return ""
+}
+
 // Container for managing docker run containers
 type Container interface {
 	Create(capAdd, capDrop []string) common.Executor

act/container/docker_cli.go

@@ -4,9 +4,10 @@
 
 //go:build !(WITHOUT_DOCKER || !(linux || darwin || windows || netbsd))
 
-// This file is exact copy of https://github.com/docker/cli/blob/dfc4efb1e2ab8c06d70d2a1366ad448d2f917e90/cli/command/container/opts.go with:
+// This file is exact copy of https://github.com/docker/cli/blob/4a63305d74332de5ceba7fcbccbc3cbb7412f5ba/cli/command/container/opts.go with:
 // * appended with license information
 // * regexp and loader.ParseVolume in place of the import-restricted internal/lazyregexp and internal/volumespec
+// * jsontext in place of json.Compact for the seccomp profile
 // * invalidParameter from the package's errors.go, and convertPortSet/convertPortMap for the callers in docker_run.go
 //
 // docker/cli is licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0.
@@ -152,6 +153,7 @@ type containerOptions struct {
 	runtime             string
 	autoRemove          bool
 	init                bool
+	umask               opts.UmaskOpt
 	annotations         *opts.MapOpts
 
 	Image string
@@ -326,6 +328,9 @@ func addFlags(flags *pflag.FlagSet) *containerOptions {
 	flags.Var(&copts.shmSize, "shm-size", "Size of /dev/shm")
 	flags.StringVar(&copts.utsMode, "uts", "", "UTS namespace to use")
 	flags.StringVar(&copts.runtime, "runtime", "", "Runtime to use for this container")
+	flags.Var(&copts.umask, "umask", "Set umask for the container")
+	flags.SetAnnotation("umask", "version", []string{"1.56"})
+	flags.SetAnnotation("umask", "ostype", []string{"linux"})
 
 	flags.BoolVar(&copts.init, "init", false, "Run an init inside the container that forwards signals and reaps processes")
 	flags.SetAnnotation("init", "version", []string{"1.25"})
@@ -721,6 +726,7 @@ func parse(flags *pflag.FlagSet, copts *containerOptions, serverOS string) (*con
 		MaskedPaths:    maskedPaths,
 		ReadonlyPaths:  readonlyPaths,
 		Annotations:    copts.annotations.GetAll(),
+		Umask:          copts.umask.Value(),
 	}
 
 	if copts.autoRemove && !hostConfig.RestartPolicy.IsNone() {

act/container/docker_cli_test.go

@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 // Copyright 2022 The nektos/act Authors. All rights reserved.
 // SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
 
-// This file is exact copy of https://github.com/docker/cli/blob/dfc4efb1e2ab8c06d70d2a1366ad448d2f917e90/cli/command/container/opts_test.go with:
+// This file is exact copy of https://github.com/docker/cli/blob/4a63305d74332de5ceba7fcbccbc3cbb7412f5ba/cli/command/container/opts_test.go with:
 // * appended with license information
 // * added tests for the locally changed parseDevice, validateDevice and invalidParameter
 //
@@ -167,6 +167,19 @@ func TestParseRunLinks(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+func TestParseRunWithoutUmask(t *testing.T) {
+	_, hostConfig, _, err := parseRun([]string{"ubuntu", "bash"})
+	assert.NilError(t, err)
+	assert.Assert(t, hostConfig.Umask == nil)
+}
+
+func TestParseRunUmask(t *testing.T) {
+	_, hostConfig, _, err := parseRun([]string{"--umask", "0022", "ubuntu", "bash"})
+	assert.NilError(t, err)
+	assert.Assert(t, hostConfig.Umask != nil)
+	assert.Equal(t, uint32(0o22), *hostConfig.Umask)
+}
+
 func TestParseRunAttach(t *testing.T) {
 	tests := []struct {
 		input    string

act/container/docker_images.go

@@ -46,14 +46,13 @@ func RemoveImage(ctx context.Context, imageName string, force, pruneChildren boo
 	}
 	defer cli.Close()
 
-	inspectImage, err := cli.ImageInspect(ctx, imageName)
-	if cerrdefs.IsNotFound(err) {
+	if _, err := cli.ImageInspect(ctx, imageName); cerrdefs.IsNotFound(err) {
 		return false, nil
 	} else if err != nil {
 		return false, err
 	}
 
-	if _, err = cli.ImageRemove(ctx, inspectImage.ID, client.ImageRemoveOptions{
+	if _, err = cli.ImageRemove(ctx, imageName, client.ImageRemoveOptions{
 		Force:         force,
 		PruneChildren: pruneChildren,
 	}); err != nil {

act/container/docker_network.go

@@ -16,16 +16,14 @@ import (
 
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/common"
 
+	cerrdefs "github.com/containerd/errdefs"
+	"github.com/moby/moby/api/types/network"
 	"github.com/moby/moby/client"
 )
 
 const (
 	networkCreateAttempts   = 3
 	networkCreateRetryDelay = time.Second
-
-	// marks the networks a runner creates for its jobs, so it can tell its own leftovers from
-	// those of another runner sharing the daemon
-	runnerUUIDLabel = "com.gitea.runner.uuid"
 )
 
 // RemoveOrphanNetworks removes the networks this runner created for jobs whose teardown did
@@ -33,17 +31,17 @@ const (
 // had an endpoint on it at the time. Each one holds a subnet of the daemon's address pool
 // until it is removed. Networks created after createdBefore are left alone, so a job starting
 // while this runs cannot lose the network it has created but not yet attached a container to.
-func RemoveOrphanNetworks(ctx context.Context, runnerUUID string, createdBefore time.Time) error {
+func RemoveOrphanNetworks(ctx context.Context, runnerUUID, detach string, createdBefore time.Time) error {
 	cli, err := GetDockerClient(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to connect to the docker daemon: %w", err)
 	}
 	defer cli.Close()
 
-	return removeOrphanNetworks(ctx, cli, runnerUUID, createdBefore)
+	return removeOrphanNetworks(ctx, cli, runnerUUID, detach, createdBefore)
 }
 
-func removeOrphanNetworks(ctx context.Context, cli client.APIClient, runnerUUID string, createdBefore time.Time) error {
+func removeOrphanNetworks(ctx context.Context, cli client.APIClient, runnerUUID, detach string, createdBefore time.Time) error {
 	networks, err := cli.NetworkList(ctx, client.NetworkListOptions{
 		Filters: make(client.Filters).Add("label", runnerUUIDLabel+"="+runnerUUID),
 	})
@@ -52,6 +50,7 @@ func removeOrphanNetworks(ctx context.Context, cli client.APIClient, runnerUUID
 	}
 
 	var errs []error
+networks:
 	for _, n := range networks.Items {
 		result, err := cli.NetworkInspect(ctx, n.ID, client.NetworkInspectOptions{})
 		if err != nil {
@@ -60,9 +59,18 @@ func removeOrphanNetworks(ctx context.Context, cli client.APIClient, runnerUUID
 		}
 		// the emptiness check, not the label, is what keeps a live job of another process
 		// sharing this registration safe
-		if len(result.Network.Containers) != 0 || result.Network.Created.After(createdBefore) {
+		if len(result.Network.Containers) > 1 || result.Network.Created.After(createdBefore) {
 			continue
 		}
+		for containerID := range result.Network.Containers {
+			if detach == "" || !strings.HasPrefix(containerID, detach) {
+				continue networks
+			}
+			if err := disconnectNetwork(ctx, cli, n.ID, containerID); err != nil {
+				errs = append(errs, fmt.Errorf("failed to disconnect container from network %s: %w", n.Name, err))
+				continue networks
+			}
+		}
 		if _, err := cli.NetworkRemove(ctx, n.ID, client.NetworkRemoveOptions{}); err != nil {
 			errs = append(errs, fmt.Errorf("failed to remove network %s: %w", n.Name, err))
 			continue
@@ -135,6 +143,50 @@ func isAddressPoolExhausted(err error) bool {
 		strings.Contains(msg, "could not find an available, non-overlapping IPv4 address pool among the defaults") // docker 24 and older
 }
 
+func NewDockerNetworkConnectExecutor(networkName, container string) common.Executor {
+	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
+		cli, err := GetDockerClient(ctx)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		defer cli.Close()
+		if err := connectNetwork(ctx, cli, networkName, container); err != nil {
+			common.Logger(ctx).Warnf("cannot connect %s to network %s, so jobs on it cannot reach the cache: %v", container, networkName, err)
+		}
+		return nil
+	}
+}
+
+func connectNetwork(ctx context.Context, cli client.APIClient, networkName, container string) error {
+	_, err := cli.NetworkConnect(ctx, networkName, client.NetworkConnectOptions{
+		Container:      container,
+		EndpointConfig: &network.EndpointSettings{Aliases: []string{container}},
+	})
+	if err != nil && (strings.Contains(err.Error(), "already exists in network") || strings.Contains(err.Error(), "already connected")) {
+		return nil
+	}
+	return err
+}
+
+func NewDockerNetworkDisconnectExecutor(networkName, container string) common.Executor {
+	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
+		cli, err := GetDockerClient(ctx)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		defer cli.Close()
+		return disconnectNetwork(ctx, cli, networkName, container)
+	}
+}
+
+func disconnectNetwork(ctx context.Context, cli client.APIClient, networkName, container string) error {
+	_, err := cli.NetworkDisconnect(ctx, networkName, client.NetworkDisconnectOptions{Container: container, Force: true})
+	if cerrdefs.IsNotFound(err) || (err != nil && strings.Contains(err.Error(), "is not connected")) {
+		return nil
+	}
+	return err
+}
+
 func NewDockerNetworkRemoveExecutor(name string) common.Executor {
 	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
 		cli, err := GetDockerClient(ctx)
@@ -174,16 +226,17 @@ func NewDockerNetworkRemoveExecutor(name string) common.Executor {
 	}
 }
 
-func IsolatedNetwork(ctx context.Context, addr netip.Addr, jobNetwork string) (string, error) {
+// IsolatedCacheContainer returns the container holding addr, when jobs on jobNetwork cannot reach it there.
+func IsolatedCacheContainer(ctx context.Context, addr netip.Addr, jobNetwork string) (string, error) {
 	cli, err := GetDockerClient(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return "", err
 	}
 	defer cli.Close()
-	return isolatedNetwork(ctx, cli, addr, jobNetwork)
+	return isolatedCacheContainer(ctx, cli, addr, jobNetwork)
 }
 
-func isolatedNetwork(ctx context.Context, cli client.APIClient, addr netip.Addr, jobNetwork string) (string, error) {
+func isolatedCacheContainer(ctx context.Context, cli client.APIClient, addr netip.Addr, jobNetwork string) (string, error) {
 	if jobNetwork == "host" || strings.HasPrefix(jobNetwork, "container:") {
 		return "", nil
 	}
@@ -191,7 +244,7 @@ func isolatedNetwork(ctx context.Context, cli client.APIClient, addr netip.Addr,
 	if err != nil {
 		return "", err
 	}
-	var holderID string
+	var holderID, holderContainer string
 	for _, summary := range containers.Items {
 		if summary.NetworkSettings == nil {
 			continue
@@ -199,6 +252,7 @@ func isolatedNetwork(ctx context.Context, cli client.APIClient, addr netip.Addr,
 		for _, endpoint := range summary.NetworkSettings.Networks {
 			if endpoint != nil && (endpoint.IPAddress == addr || endpoint.GlobalIPv6Address == addr) {
 				holderID = endpoint.NetworkID
+				holderContainer = summary.ID[:12]
 			}
 		}
 	}
@@ -215,5 +269,5 @@ func isolatedNetwork(ctx context.Context, cli client.APIClient, addr netip.Addr,
 			return "", err
 		}
 	}
-	return holder.Network.Name, nil
+	return holderContainer, nil
 }

act/container/docker_network_test.go

@@ -18,11 +18,12 @@ import (
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
 )
 
-func TestIsolatedNetwork(t *testing.T) {
+func TestIsolatedCacheContainer(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
 	cache, lan := netip.MustParseAddr("172.18.0.3"), netip.MustParseAddr("192.168.1.20")
 	client := &mockDockerClient{}
 	client.On("ContainerList", ctx, mobyclient.ContainerListOptions{}).Return(mobyclient.ContainerListResult{Items: []container.Summary{{}, {
+		ID: "0123456789abcdef",
 		NetworkSettings: &container.NetworkSettingsSummary{Networks: map[string]*network.EndpointSettings{
 			"compose": {NetworkID: "c0ffee", IPAddress: cache},
 			"lan":     {NetworkID: "beef", IPAddress: lan},
@@ -38,12 +39,12 @@ func TestIsolatedNetwork(t *testing.T) {
 			Return(mobyclient.NetworkInspectResult{Network: network.Inspect{Network: inspected}}, nil)
 	}
 	check := func(addr netip.Addr, jobNetwork, want string) {
-		got, err := isolatedNetwork(ctx, client, addr, jobNetwork)
+		got, err := isolatedCacheContainer(ctx, client, addr, jobNetwork)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 		assert.Equal(t, want, got, jobNetwork)
 	}
-	check(cache, "", "compose")
-	check(cache, "jobs", "compose")
+	check(cache, "", "0123456789ab")
+	check(cache, "jobs", "0123456789ab")
 	check(cache, "c0f", "")
 	check(cache, "host", "")
 	check(lan, "", "")
@@ -56,9 +57,44 @@ func TestIsAddressPoolExhausted(t *testing.T) {
 	assert.False(t, isAddressPoolExhausted(cerrdefs.ErrInvalidArgument.WithMessage("invalid subnet 10.0.0.0/8: it overlaps with an existing network")))
 }
 
-// Of this runner's networks, only the ones nothing is attached to and old enough to predate
-// any job now starting are the runner's to reclaim. An unexpected NetworkRemove fails the
-// test on its own, since testify has no expectation to match it against.
+func (m *mockDockerClient) NetworkConnect(ctx context.Context, id string, opts mobyclient.NetworkConnectOptions) (mobyclient.NetworkConnectResult, error) {
+	return mobyclient.NetworkConnectResult{}, m.Called(ctx, id, opts).Error(0)
+}
+
+func (m *mockDockerClient) NetworkDisconnect(ctx context.Context, id string, opts mobyclient.NetworkDisconnectOptions) (mobyclient.NetworkDisconnectResult, error) {
+	return mobyclient.NetworkDisconnectResult{}, m.Called(ctx, id, opts).Error(0)
+}
+
+func TestConnectAndDisconnectNetwork(t *testing.T) {
+	ctx := context.Background()
+	connect := func(answer error) error {
+		client := &mockDockerClient{}
+		client.On("NetworkConnect", ctx, "jobs", mobyclient.NetworkConnectOptions{
+			Container:      "0123456789ab",
+			EndpointConfig: &network.EndpointSettings{Aliases: []string{"0123456789ab"}},
+		}).Return(answer).Once()
+		return connectNetwork(ctx, client, "jobs", "0123456789ab")
+	}
+	require.NoError(t, connect(nil))
+	require.NoError(t, connect(errors.New("endpoint with name runner already exists in network jobs")))
+	require.NoError(t, connect(errors.New("container runner already connected to network jobs")))
+	require.ErrorIs(t, connect(context.Canceled), context.Canceled)
+
+	disconnect := func(answer error) error {
+		client := &mockDockerClient{}
+		client.On("NetworkDisconnect", ctx, "jobs", mobyclient.NetworkDisconnectOptions{
+			Container: "0123456789ab", Force: true,
+		}).Return(answer).Once()
+		return disconnectNetwork(ctx, client, "jobs", "0123456789ab")
+	}
+	require.NoError(t, disconnect(cerrdefs.ErrNotFound))
+	require.NoError(t, disconnect(errors.New("container runner is not connected to the network jobs")))
+	require.ErrorIs(t, disconnect(context.Canceled), context.Canceled)
+}
+
+// Of this runner's networks, only the ones nothing but its own cache container is attached to
+// and old enough to predate any job now starting are the runner's to reclaim. An unexpected
+// NetworkRemove fails the test on its own, since testify has no expectation to match it against.
 func TestRemoveOrphanNetworks(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
 	cutoff := time.Date(2026, time.April, 29, 20, 0, 0, 0, time.UTC)
@@ -69,16 +105,29 @@ func TestRemoveOrphanNetworks(t *testing.T) {
 		{ID: "orphan"},
 		{ID: "busy"},
 		{ID: "starting"},
+		{ID: "cached"},
+		{ID: "shared"},
 	}}, nil)
 	client.On("NetworkInspect", ctx, "orphan", mobyclient.NetworkInspectOptions{}).
 		Return(mobyclient.NetworkInspectResult{}, nil)
 	client.On("NetworkInspect", ctx, "busy", mobyclient.NetworkInspectOptions{}).
 		Return(mobyclient.NetworkInspectResult{Network: network.Inspect{Containers: map[string]network.EndpointResource{"c": {}}}}, nil)
 	client.On("NetworkInspect", ctx, "starting", mobyclient.NetworkInspectOptions{}).
-		Return(mobyclient.NetworkInspectResult{Network: network.Inspect{Network: network.Network{Created: cutoff.Add(time.Second)}}}, nil)
+		Return(mobyclient.NetworkInspectResult{Network: network.Inspect{
+			Network:    network.Network{Created: cutoff.Add(time.Second)},
+			Containers: map[string]network.EndpointResource{"0123456789abcdef": {}},
+		}}, nil)
+	client.On("NetworkInspect", ctx, "cached", mobyclient.NetworkInspectOptions{}).
+		Return(mobyclient.NetworkInspectResult{Network: network.Inspect{Containers: map[string]network.EndpointResource{"0123456789abcdef": {}}}}, nil)
+	client.On("NetworkInspect", ctx, "shared", mobyclient.NetworkInspectOptions{}).
+		Return(mobyclient.NetworkInspectResult{Network: network.Inspect{Containers: map[string]network.EndpointResource{"0123456789abcdef": {}, "job": {}}}}, nil)
 	client.On("NetworkRemove", ctx, "orphan", mobyclient.NetworkRemoveOptions{}).
 		Return(mobyclient.NetworkRemoveResult{}, nil)
+	client.On("NetworkDisconnect", ctx, "cached", mobyclient.NetworkDisconnectOptions{Container: "0123456789abcdef", Force: true}).
+		Return(nil).Once()
+	client.On("NetworkRemove", ctx, "cached", mobyclient.NetworkRemoveOptions{}).
+		Return(mobyclient.NetworkRemoveResult{}, nil).Once()
 
-	require.NoError(t, removeOrphanNetworks(ctx, client, "runner-1", cutoff))
+	require.NoError(t, removeOrphanNetworks(ctx, client, "runner-1", "0123456789ab", cutoff))
 	client.AssertExpectations(t)
 }

act/container/docker_proxy.go

@@ -66,15 +66,11 @@ func NewDockerProxy(ctx context.Context, job string) *DockerProxy {
 	if info, err := os.Stat(daemonSocket); err != nil || info.Mode()&os.ModeSocket == 0 {
 		return nil
 	}
-	dir, err := filepath.Abs(os.TempDir())
-	if err != nil {
-		common.Logger(ctx).Infof("docker proxy probe failed, jobs get the daemon socket directly: %v", err)
-		return nil
-	}
-	daemonDir := dir
-	seen, err := daemonSeesDir(probeCtx, cli, dir, daemonDir)
-	if err == nil && !seen {
-		if dir, daemonDir = runnerContainerWorkdir(probeCtx, cli); daemonDir != "" {
+	dir, daemonDir := runnerContainerWorkdir(probeCtx, cli)
+	seen := daemonDir != ""
+	if !seen {
+		if dir, err = filepath.Abs(os.TempDir()); err == nil {
+			daemonDir = dir
 			seen, err = daemonSeesDir(probeCtx, cli, dir, daemonDir)
 		}
 	}
@@ -109,18 +105,16 @@ func runnerContainerWorkdir(ctx context.Context, cli client.APIClient) (workdir,
 	if err != nil {
 		return "", ""
 	}
-	destination := ""
-	for _, point := range self.Container.Mounts {
-		if rel, err := filepath.Rel(point.Destination, workdir); err == nil && filepath.IsLocal(rel) && len(point.Destination) > len(destination) {
-			destination, daemonDir = point.Destination, filepath.Join(point.Source, rel)
-		}
+	if daemonDir = containerInfoFromInspect(self.Container).DaemonPath(workdir); daemonDir == "" {
+		return "", ""
+	}
+	if seen, _ := containerSeesMarker(ctx, cli, workdir, self.Container.ID, workdir); !seen { // the hostname may name another container
+		return "", ""
 	}
 	return workdir, daemonDir
 }
 
-// daemonSeesDir reports whether the daemon opens the files the runner writes in dir by their path in daemonDir,
-// which is what a job's proxy socket mounted from there needs.
-func daemonSeesDir(ctx context.Context, cli client.APIClient, dir, daemonDir string) (bool, error) {
+func containerSeesMarker(ctx context.Context, cli client.APIClient, dir, id, containerDir string) (bool, error) {
 	marker, err := os.CreateTemp(dir, "gitea-runner-probe-")
 	if err != nil {
 		return false, err
@@ -133,6 +127,16 @@ func daemonSeesDir(ctx context.Context, cli client.APIClient, dir, daemonDir str
 	if err := marker.Close(); err != nil {
 		return false, err
 	}
+	_, err = cli.ContainerStatPath(ctx, id, client.ContainerStatPathOptions{Path: path.Join(containerDir, filepath.Base(marker.Name()))})
+	if cerrdefs.IsNotFound(err) {
+		return false, nil
+	}
+	return err == nil, err
+}
+
+// daemonSeesDir reports whether the daemon opens the files the runner writes in dir by their path in daemonDir,
+// which is what a job's proxy socket mounted from there needs.
+func daemonSeesDir(ctx context.Context, cli client.APIClient, dir, daemonDir string) (bool, error) {
 	images, err := cli.ImageList(ctx, client.ImageListOptions{})
 	if err != nil {
 		return false, err
@@ -143,7 +147,7 @@ func daemonSeesDir(ctx context.Context, cli client.APIClient, dir, daemonDir str
 	created, err := cli.ContainerCreate(ctx, client.ContainerCreateOptions{
 		Config: &container.Config{Image: images.Items[0].ID, Cmd: []string{"true"}},
 		HostConfig: &container.HostConfig{Mounts: []mount.Mount{
-			{Type: mount.TypeBind, Source: filepath.Join(daemonDir, filepath.Base(marker.Name())), Target: "/gitea-runner-probe", ReadOnly: true},
+			{Type: mount.TypeBind, Source: daemonDir, Target: "/gitea-runner-probe", ReadOnly: true}, // not the marker itself, podman creates a missing bind source where docker rejects it
 		}},
 	})
 	if cerrdefs.IsInvalidArgument(err) {
@@ -152,12 +156,13 @@ func daemonSeesDir(ctx context.Context, cli client.APIClient, dir, daemonDir str
 	if err != nil {
 		return false, err
 	}
+	seen, err := containerSeesMarker(ctx, cli, dir, created.ID, "/gitea-runner-probe")
 	cleanupCtx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(context.WithoutCancel(ctx), dockerProxyProbeTimeout)
 	defer cancel()
-	if _, err := cli.ContainerRemove(cleanupCtx, created.ID, client.ContainerRemoveOptions{Force: true, RemoveVolumes: true}); err != nil {
-		return false, fmt.Errorf("removing the docker proxy probe container failed: %w", err)
+	if _, removeErr := cli.ContainerRemove(cleanupCtx, created.ID, client.ContainerRemoveOptions{Force: true, RemoveVolumes: true}); removeErr != nil {
+		return false, fmt.Errorf("removing the docker proxy probe container failed: %w", removeErr)
 	}
-	return true, nil
+	return seen, err
 }
 
 // StartDockerProxy serves a job's docker socket in dir, labelling what the job creates through it.

act/container/docker_proxy_test.go

@@ -321,6 +321,9 @@ func TestDockerProxyWithDaemon(t *testing.T) {
 	seen, err := daemonSeesDir(ctx, direct, dir, dir)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	t.Logf("daemon sees the runner's filesystem: %v", seen)
+	seen, err = daemonSeesDir(ctx, direct, dir, shortTempDir(t))
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.False(t, seen)
 
 	job := "proxy-test-" + strconv.FormatInt(time.Now().UnixNano(), 36)
 	proxy, err := StartDockerProxy(daemonSocketPath(t, direct), dir, job)
@@ -425,6 +428,12 @@ type probeClient struct {
 	mobyclient.APIClient
 	create func(mobyclient.ContainerCreateOptions) (mobyclient.ContainerCreateResult, error)
 	remove func(context.Context, string, mobyclient.ContainerRemoveOptions) (mobyclient.ContainerRemoveResult, error)
+	stat   func(string) error
+	mounts []container.MountPoint
+}
+
+func (c *probeClient) ContainerInspect(context.Context, string, mobyclient.ContainerInspectOptions) (mobyclient.ContainerInspectResult, error) {
+	return mobyclient.ContainerInspectResult{Container: container.InspectResponse{Mounts: c.mounts}}, nil
 }
 
 func (c *probeClient) ImageList(context.Context, mobyclient.ImageListOptions) (mobyclient.ImageListResult, error) {
@@ -439,43 +448,47 @@ func (c *probeClient) ContainerRemove(ctx context.Context, id string, opts mobyc
 	return c.remove(ctx, id, opts)
 }
 
+func (c *probeClient) ContainerStatPath(_ context.Context, _ string, opts mobyclient.ContainerStatPathOptions) (mobyclient.ContainerStatPathResult, error) {
+	return mobyclient.ContainerStatPathResult{}, c.stat(opts.Path)
+}
+
 func TestDaemonSeesDir(t *testing.T) {
 	dir := t.TempDir()
 	markers := make(map[string]bool)
 	for _, testCase := range []struct {
 		name      string
-		private   bool
+		daemonDir string
 		removeErr error
+		seen      bool
+		removed   bool
 	}{
-		{name: "cleanup after cancellation"},
-		{name: "private filesystem with stale marker", private: true},
-		{name: "cleanup error after cancellation", removeErr: errors.New("cleanup failed")},
+		{name: "cleanup after cancellation", daemonDir: dir, seen: true, removed: true},
+		{name: "daemon without the directory", daemonDir: filepath.Join(dir, "missing")},
+		{name: "daemon with a different directory at that path", daemonDir: t.TempDir(), removed: true},
+		{name: "cleanup error after cancellation", daemonDir: dir, removeErr: errors.New("cleanup failed"), removed: true},
 	} {
 		t.Run(testCase.name, func(t *testing.T) {
 			ctx, cancel := context.WithCancel(t.Context())
 			defer cancel()
-			daemonDir := dir
-			if testCase.private {
-				daemonDir = t.TempDir()
-				require.NoError(t, os.WriteFile(filepath.Join(daemonDir, "probe"), []byte("stale"), 0o600))
-			}
 			removed := false
 			cli := &probeClient{
 				create: func(opts mobyclient.ContainerCreateOptions) (mobyclient.ContainerCreateResult, error) {
-					require.Len(t, opts.HostConfig.Mounts, 1)
-					marker := opts.HostConfig.Mounts[0].Source
-					assert.Equal(t, mount.Mount{Type: mount.TypeBind, Source: marker, Target: "/gitea-runner-probe", ReadOnly: true}, opts.HostConfig.Mounts[0])
-					assert.False(t, markers[marker])
-					markers[marker] = true
-					info, err := os.Stat(marker)
-					require.NoError(t, err)
-					assert.True(t, info.Mode().IsRegular())
+					assert.Equal(t, []mount.Mount{{Type: mount.TypeBind, Source: testCase.daemonDir, Target: "/gitea-runner-probe", ReadOnly: true}}, opts.HostConfig.Mounts)
 					cancel()
-					if _, err := os.Stat(filepath.Join(daemonDir, filepath.Base(marker))); errors.Is(err, os.ErrNotExist) {
+					if _, err := os.Stat(testCase.daemonDir); err != nil {
 						return mobyclient.ContainerCreateResult{}, cerrdefs.ErrInvalidArgument
 					}
 					return mobyclient.ContainerCreateResult{ID: "probe"}, nil
 				},
+				stat: func(path string) error {
+					marker := strings.TrimPrefix(path, "/gitea-runner-probe/")
+					assert.False(t, markers[marker])
+					markers[marker] = true
+					if _, err := os.Stat(filepath.Join(testCase.daemonDir, marker)); err != nil {
+						return cerrdefs.ErrNotFound
+					}
+					return nil
+				},
 				remove: func(ctx context.Context, id string, opts mobyclient.ContainerRemoveOptions) (mobyclient.ContainerRemoveResult, error) {
 					removed = true
 					assert.Equal(t, "probe", id)
@@ -486,13 +499,45 @@ func TestDaemonSeesDir(t *testing.T) {
 					return mobyclient.ContainerRemoveResult{}, testCase.removeErr
 				},
 			}
-			seen, err := daemonSeesDir(ctx, cli, dir, dir)
+			seen, err := daemonSeesDir(ctx, cli, dir, testCase.daemonDir)
 			require.ErrorIs(t, err, testCase.removeErr)
-			assert.Equal(t, !testCase.private && testCase.removeErr == nil, seen)
-			assert.Equal(t, !testCase.private, removed)
+			assert.Equal(t, testCase.seen, seen)
+			assert.Equal(t, testCase.removed, removed)
 			entries, err := os.ReadDir(dir)
 			require.NoError(t, err)
 			assert.Empty(t, entries)
 		})
 	}
 }
+
+func TestRunnerContainerWorkdir(t *testing.T) {
+	workdir := t.TempDir()
+	t.Chdir(workdir)
+	volume := container.MountPoint{Type: mount.TypeVolume, Source: "/daemon/_data", Destination: filepath.Dir(workdir)}
+	for _, testCase := range []struct {
+		name      string
+		mount     container.MountPoint
+		foreign   bool
+		daemonDir string
+	}{
+		{name: "volume above the working directory", mount: volume, daemonDir: filepath.Join(volume.Source, filepath.Base(workdir))},
+		{name: "tmpfs", mount: container.MountPoint{Type: mount.TypeTmpfs, Destination: volume.Destination}},
+		{name: "hostname of another container", mount: volume, foreign: true},
+	} {
+		cli := &probeClient{
+			mounts: []container.MountPoint{testCase.mount},
+			stat: func(path string) error {
+				if _, err := os.Stat(path); err != nil || testCase.foreign {
+					return cerrdefs.ErrNotFound
+				}
+				return nil
+			},
+		}
+		dir, daemonDir := runnerContainerWorkdir(t.Context(), cli)
+		assert.Equal(t, testCase.daemonDir, daemonDir, testCase.name)
+		assert.Equal(t, testCase.daemonDir != "", dir == workdir, testCase.name)
+	}
+	entries, err := os.ReadDir(workdir)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Empty(t, entries)
+}

act/container/docker_run.go

@@ -7,7 +7,6 @@
 package container
 
 import (
-	"archive/tar"
 	"bytes"
 	"context"
 	"errors"
@@ -25,16 +24,12 @@ import (
 	"time"
 
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/common"
-	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/filecollector"
 
 	"dario.cat/mergo"
+	"github.com/bmatcuk/doublestar/v4"
 	cerrdefs "github.com/containerd/errdefs"
 	"github.com/docker/cli/cli/compose/loader"
 	"github.com/docker/cli/cli/connhelper"
-	"github.com/go-git/go-billy/v5/helper/polyfill"
-	"github.com/go-git/go-billy/v5/osfs"
-	"github.com/go-git/go-git/v5/plumbing/format/gitignore"
-	"github.com/gobwas/glob"
 	"github.com/joho/godotenv"
 	"github.com/moby/moby/api/pkg/stdcopy"
 	"github.com/moby/moby/api/types/container"
@@ -593,7 +588,8 @@ func (cr *containerReference) mergeContainerConfigs(ctx context.Context, config
 
 	// If the `privileged` config has been disabled, `copts.privileged` need to be forced to false,
 	// even if the user specifies `--privileged` in the options string.
-	if !hostConfig.Privileged {
+	if !hostConfig.Privileged && copts.privileged {
+		logger.Warnf("container option %q is not allowed when privileged mode is disabled and will be ignored", "--privileged")
 		copts.privileged = false
 	}
 
@@ -629,6 +625,7 @@ func (cr *containerReference) mergeContainerConfigs(ctx context.Context, config
 
 	logger.Debugf("Custom container.HostConfig from options ==> %+v", containerConfig.HostConfig)
 
+	cr.sanitizeConfig(ctx, nil, containerConfig.HostConfig) // a dropped volume must not displace the runner's own
 	overlayVolumes(hostConfig, containerConfig.HostConfig)
 	binds := hostConfig.Binds
 	mounts := hostConfig.Mounts
@@ -980,42 +977,7 @@ func (cr *containerReference) copyDir(dstPath, srcPath string, useGitIgnore, ski
 				logger.Error(err)
 			}
 		}(tarFile)
-		tw := tar.NewWriter(tarFile)
-
-		srcPrefix := filepath.Dir(srcPath)
-		if !strings.HasSuffix(srcPrefix, string(filepath.Separator)) {
-			srcPrefix += string(filepath.Separator)
-		}
-		logger.Debugf("Stripping prefix:%s src:%s", srcPrefix, srcPath)
-
-		var ignorer gitignore.Matcher
-		if useGitIgnore {
-			ps, err := gitignore.ReadPatterns(polyfill.New(osfs.New(srcPath)), nil)
-			if err != nil {
-				logger.Debugf("Error loading .gitignore: %v", err)
-			}
-
-			ignorer = gitignore.NewMatcher(ps)
-		}
-
-		fc := &filecollector.FileCollector{
-			Ignorer:    ignorer,
-			SrcPath:    srcPath,
-			SrcPrefix:  srcPrefix,
-			SkipGitDir: skipGitDir,
-			Handler: &filecollector.TarCollector{
-				TarWriter: tw,
-				UID:       cr.UID,
-				GID:       cr.GID,
-				DstDir:    dstPath[1:],
-			},
-		}
-
-		err = filepath.Walk(srcPath, fc.CollectFiles(ctx, []string{}))
-		if err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
-		if err := tw.Close(); err != nil {
+		if err := writeDirTar(ctx, tarFile, dstPath, srcPath, useGitIgnore, skipGitDir, cr.UID, cr.GID); err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
 
@@ -1040,30 +1002,12 @@ func (cr *containerReference) copyContent(dstPath string, files ...*FileEntry) c
 		if cr.id == "" {
 			return cr.missingContainerError("copy to %s", dstPath)
 		}
-		logger := common.Logger(ctx)
 		var buf bytes.Buffer
-		tw := tar.NewWriter(&buf)
-		for _, file := range files {
-			logger.Debugf("Writing entry to tarball %s len:%d", file.Name, len(file.Body))
-			hdr := &tar.Header{
-				Name: file.Name,
-				Mode: file.Mode,
-				Size: int64(len(file.Body)),
-				Uid:  cr.UID,
-				Gid:  cr.GID,
-			}
-			if err := tw.WriteHeader(hdr); err != nil {
-				return err
-			}
-			if _, err := tw.Write([]byte(file.Body)); err != nil {
-				return err
-			}
-		}
-		if err := tw.Close(); err != nil {
+		if err := writeFilesTar(ctx, &buf, cr.UID, cr.GID, files...); err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
 
-		logger.Debugf("Extracting content to '%s'", dstPath)
+		common.Logger(ctx).Debugf("Extracting content to '%s'", dstPath)
 		_, err := cr.cli.CopyToContainer(ctx, cr.id, client.CopyToContainerOptions{
 			DestinationPath: dstPath,
 			Content:         &buf,
@@ -1261,6 +1205,12 @@ func (cr *containerReference) sanitizeConfig(ctx context.Context, config *contai
 	return config, hostConfig
 }
 
+func SanitizeBinds(ctx context.Context, validVolumes, binds []string) []string {
+	cr := &containerReference{input: &NewContainerInput{ValidVolumes: validVolumes}}
+	_, hostConfig := cr.sanitizeConfig(ctx, nil, &container.HostConfig{Binds: binds})
+	return hostConfig.Binds
+}
+
 // bindTarget returns the container path a bind mounts onto, empty if it cannot be parsed.
 func bindTarget(bind string) string {
 	parsed, err := loader.ParseVolume(bind)
@@ -1291,15 +1241,15 @@ func overlayVolumes(dst, src *container.HostConfig) {
 
 type validVolumeMatcher struct {
 	allowAll bool
-	named    []*glob.Pattern
-	host     []*glob.Pattern
+	named    []string
+	host     []string
 }
 
 func newValidVolumeMatcher(ctx context.Context, validVolumes []string) validVolumeMatcher {
 	logger := common.Logger(ctx)
 	ret := validVolumeMatcher{
-		named: make([]*glob.Pattern, 0, len(validVolumes)),
-		host:  make([]*glob.Pattern, 0, len(validVolumes)),
+		named: make([]string, 0, len(validVolumes)),
+		host:  make([]string, 0, len(validVolumes)),
 	}
 
 	for _, v := range validVolumes {
@@ -1308,10 +1258,10 @@ func newValidVolumeMatcher(ctx context.Context, validVolumes []string) validVolu
 			continue
 		}
 		if !isHostVolumePattern(v) {
-			if g, err := glob.Compile(v); err != nil {
-				logger.Errorf("create glob from %s error: %v", v, err)
+			if doublestar.ValidatePattern(v) {
+				ret.named = append(ret.named, v)
 			} else {
-				ret.named = append(ret.named, g)
+				logger.Errorf("invalid volume pattern %s", v)
 			}
 			continue
 		}
@@ -1320,10 +1270,10 @@ func newValidVolumeMatcher(ctx context.Context, validVolumes []string) validVolu
 			logger.Errorf("normalize volume pattern %s error: %v", v, err)
 			continue
 		}
-		if g, err := glob.Compile(normalized); err != nil {
-			logger.Errorf("create glob from %s error: %v", normalized, err)
+		if doublestar.ValidatePathPattern(normalized) {
+			ret.host = append(ret.host, normalized)
 		} else {
-			ret.host = append(ret.host, g)
+			logger.Errorf("invalid volume pattern %s", normalized)
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -1339,15 +1289,15 @@ func (m validVolumeMatcher) isValid(source string, sourceType mount.Type) bool {
 		if err != nil {
 			return false
 		}
-		for _, g := range m.host {
-			if g.Match(normalized) {
+		for _, pattern := range m.host {
+			if doublestar.PathMatchUnvalidated(pattern, normalized) {
 				return true
 			}
 		}
 		return false
 	}
-	for _, g := range m.named {
-		if g.Match(source) {
+	for _, pattern := range m.named {
+		if doublestar.MatchUnvalidated(pattern, source) {
 			return true
 		}
 	}

act/container/docker_run_test.go

@@ -560,11 +560,14 @@ func TestCheckVolumes(t *testing.T) {
 				"shared_volume",
 				"/home/test/data",
 				"/etc/conf.d/*.json",
+				"/opt/**",
 			},
 			binds: []string{
 				"shared_volume:/shared_volume",
 				"/home/test/data:/test_data",
 				"/etc/conf.d/base.json:/config/base.json",
+				"/etc/conf.d/sub/nested.json:/config/nested.json",
+				"/opt/app/cache:/cache",
 				"sql_data:/sql_data",
 				"/secrets/keys:/keys",
 			},
@@ -572,6 +575,7 @@ func TestCheckVolumes(t *testing.T) {
 				"shared_volume:/shared_volume",
 				"/home/test/data:/test_data",
 				"/etc/conf.d/base.json:/config/base.json",
+				"/opt/app/cache:/cache",
 			},
 		},
 	}
@@ -678,6 +682,7 @@ func mergeOptions(t *testing.T, runnerOptions, workflowOptions string, privilege
 		WorkflowOptions: workflowOptions,
 		NetworkMode:     "bridge",
 		UsernsMode:      "private",
+		ValidVolumes:    []string{"**"},
 	}}
 
 	_, hostConfig, err := cr.mergeContainerConfigs(common.WithLogger(context.Background(), logger), &container.Config{}, &container.HostConfig{
@@ -840,8 +845,10 @@ func TestMergeContainerConfigsVolumesReplaceRunnerMounts(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := common.WithLogger(context.Background(), logger)
 	cr := &containerReference{
 		input: &NewContainerInput{
-			NetworkMode:   "bridge",
-			RunnerOptions: "--volume /host/tools:/opt/hostedtoolcache",
+			NetworkMode:     "bridge",
+			RunnerOptions:   "--volume /host/tools:/opt/hostedtoolcache",
+			WorkflowOptions: "--volume /unapproved:/var/run/docker.sock",
+			ValidVolumes:    []string{"/host/tools"},
 		},
 	}
 
@@ -863,6 +870,7 @@ func TestMergeContainerConfigsWarnsOnlyAboutOptionsThatWereGiven(t *testing.T) {
 	assert.Zero(t, warnings("--volume /host/tools:/opt/hostedtoolcache", ""))
 	assert.Zero(t, warnings("", "--shm-size 1g"))
 	assert.Equal(t, 1, warnings("--network host", ""))
+	assert.Equal(t, 1, warnings("", "--privileged"))
 }
 
 func TestMergeContainerConfigsKeepsNetworkAliasesFromOptions(t *testing.T) {

act/container/docker_stub.go

@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/moby/moby/api/types/system"
 )
 
-func IsolatedNetwork(context.Context, netip.Addr, string) (string, error) {
+func IsolatedCacheContainer(context.Context, netip.Addr, string) (string, error) {
 	return "", nil
 }
 
@@ -91,10 +91,26 @@ func NewDockerNetworkRemoveExecutor(name string) common.Executor {
 	}
 }
 
-func RemoveOrphanNetworks(ctx context.Context, runnerUUID string, createdBefore time.Time) error {
+func NewDockerNetworkConnectExecutor(_, _ string) common.Executor {
+	return func(_ context.Context) error {
+		return nil
+	}
+}
+
+func NewDockerNetworkDisconnectExecutor(_, _ string) common.Executor {
+	return func(_ context.Context) error {
+		return nil
+	}
+}
+
+func RemoveOrphanNetworks(_ context.Context, _, _ string, _ time.Time) error {
 	return nil
 }
 
+func SanitizeBinds(_ context.Context, _, binds []string) []string {
+	return binds
+}
+
 func CreateJobVolumes(ctx context.Context, runnerUUID string, volumeNames []string) error {
 	return nil
 }

act/container/kubernetes.go

@@ -0,0 +1,576 @@
+// Copyright 2026 The Gitea Authors. All rights reserved.
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+
+package container
+
+import (
+	"bufio"
+	"bytes"
+	"cmp"
+	"context"
+	"crypto/rand"
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"io"
+	"maps"
+	"net/http"
+	"net/url"
+	"os"
+	"path"
+	"regexp"
+	"slices"
+	"strings"
+	"time"
+
+	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/common"
+
+	"github.com/kballard/go-shellquote"
+	"github.com/spf13/pflag"
+)
+
+// KubernetesOptions configures the pod a job runs in.
+type KubernetesOptions struct {
+	Kubeconfig   string
+	Namespace    string
+	PodTemplates []map[string]any // merged in order, a later one winning
+	MaxLifetime  time.Duration
+	ForcePull    bool
+	RunnerUUID   string
+}
+
+// KubernetesPod runs a job container and its service containers as one pod.
+type KubernetesPod struct {
+	options          KubernetesOptions
+	client           *kubeClient
+	name, secretName string
+	job              *kubernetesContainer
+	services         []*kubernetesContainer
+	arch, path       string
+}
+
+type kubernetesContainer struct {
+	LinuxContainerEnvironmentExtensions
+	pod   *KubernetesPod
+	id    string // the workflow's service id, name is its DNS label form
+	name  string
+	input *NewContainerInput
+	probe map[string]any
+}
+
+type containerStatus struct {
+	Name  string
+	Ready bool
+	State struct {
+		Waiting    *struct{ Reason, Message string }
+		Running    *struct{}
+		Terminated *struct {
+			ExitCode int
+			Message  string
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+type podStatus struct {
+	Spec   struct{ Containers []struct{} }
+	Status struct {
+		Phase, Reason, Message                   string
+		Conditions                               []struct{ Type, Status, Message string }
+		InitContainerStatuses, ContainerStatuses []containerStatus
+	}
+}
+
+func NewKubernetesPod(options KubernetesOptions) (*KubernetesPod, error) {
+	client, err := newKubeClient(options.Kubeconfig, options.Namespace)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("connect to Kubernetes: %w", err)
+	}
+	return &KubernetesPod{options: options, client: client}, nil
+}
+
+// JobContainer returns the container of the pod the job's steps run in.
+func (p *KubernetesPod) JobContainer(input *NewContainerInput) ExecutionsEnvironment {
+	p.job = &kubernetesContainer{pod: p, name: "job", input: input}
+	return p.job
+}
+
+var invalidLabelChars = regexp.MustCompile(`[^a-z0-9-]+`)
+
+// KubernetesServiceName returns the container name and hostname of service id, made a DNS label as both must be.
+func KubernetesServiceName(id string) string {
+	name := strings.Trim(invalidLabelChars.ReplaceAllString(strings.ToLower(id), "-"), "-")
+	return strings.TrimRight(name[:min(63, len(name))], "-")
+}
+
+// ServiceContainer returns a container of the pod the job reaches at hostname KubernetesServiceName(id).
+func (p *KubernetesPod) ServiceContainer(id string, input *NewContainerInput) ExecutionsEnvironment {
+	service := &kubernetesContainer{pod: p, id: id, name: KubernetesServiceName(id), input: input}
+	p.services = append(p.services, service)
+	return service
+}
+
+func (p *KubernetesPod) create(ctx context.Context) error {
+	prefix := strings.Trim(strings.ToLower(p.job.input.Name), "-")
+	prefix = cmp.Or(strings.TrimRight(prefix[:min(40, len(prefix))], "-"), "gitea-runner") + "-"
+	name := prefix + strings.ToLower(rand.Text()[:8]) // chosen here, so cleanup knows it even when a create response is lost
+	labels := map[string]any{"app.kubernetes.io/managed-by": "gitea-runner"}
+	if p.options.RunnerUUID != "" {
+		labels[runnerUUIDLabel] = p.options.RunnerUUID
+	}
+	metadata := map[string]any{"name": name, "labels": labels}
+	if hostname, err := os.Hostname(); p.client.inCluster && err == nil {
+		var runner struct{ Metadata struct{ Name, UID string } }
+		if err := p.client.do(ctx, http.MethodGet, p.client.path("pods/"+hostname), nil, &runner); err == nil {
+			metadata["ownerReferences"] = []any{map[string]any{"apiVersion": "v1", "kind": "Pod", "name": runner.Metadata.Name, "uid": runner.Metadata.UID}}
+		} else {
+			common.Logger(ctx).Debugf("The runner is not pod %s, job pods get no owner: %v", hostname, err)
+		}
+	}
+	secretData := map[string]string{}
+	manifest, err := p.manifest(name, secretData, metadata)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	for _, service := range p.services {
+		if !strings.EqualFold(service.id, service.name) {
+			common.Logger(ctx).Warnf("Service %s is reachable as %s or localhost, as a Kubernetes hostname cannot be %q", service.id, service.name, service.id)
+		}
+	}
+	if len(secretData) > 0 {
+		p.secretName = name // named like the pod, RemoveOrphanKubernetesResources finds it by that
+		if err := p.client.do(ctx, http.MethodPost, p.client.path("secrets"), map[string]any{"metadata": metadata, "stringData": secretData}, nil); err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("create secret: %w", err)
+		}
+	}
+	p.name = name
+	if err := p.client.do(ctx, http.MethodPost, p.client.path("pods"), manifest, nil); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("create pod: %w", err)
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (p *KubernetesPod) manifest(secret string, secretData map[string]string, metadata map[string]any) (any, error) {
+	template := map[string]any{"spec": map[string]any{
+		"automountServiceAccountToken":  false,
+		"enableServiceLinks":            false,
+		"terminationGracePeriodSeconds": 0, // the job container's tail ignores SIGTERM
+	}}
+	for _, layer := range p.options.PodTemplates {
+		template, _ = mergeManifest(template, layer, "").(map[string]any)
+	}
+	templateSpec, _ := template["spec"].(map[string]any)
+	templateContainers, _ := templateSpec["containers"].([]any)
+	templateVolumes, _ := templateSpec["volumes"].([]any)
+	var serviceTemplate any
+	if index := slices.IndexFunc(templateContainers, func(container any) bool { return manifestField(container, "name") == "$services" }); index >= 0 {
+		serviceTemplate = templateContainers[index]
+		templateSpec["containers"] = slices.Delete(slices.Clone(templateContainers), index, index+1)
+	}
+	var containers, hostnames, volumes []any
+	names := map[string]bool{}
+	for _, container := range templateContainers {
+		names[manifestField(container, "name")] = true
+	}
+	for _, c := range append([]*kubernetesContainer{p.job}, p.services...) {
+		if c != p.job && (c.name == "" || names[c.name]) {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("service %s maps to container %q, which is empty or named like another container of the pod", c.id, c.name)
+		}
+		names[c.name] = true
+		spec, err := c.spec(secret, secretData)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+		if c == p.job {
+			containers = append(containers, spec)
+			continue
+		}
+		containers = append(containers, mergeManifest(serviceTemplate, spec, ""))
+		hostnames = append(hostnames, c.name)
+	}
+	for _, name := range []string{"workspace", "act"} {
+		if !slices.ContainsFunc(templateVolumes, func(volume any) bool { return manifestField(volume, "name") == name }) {
+			volumes = append(volumes, map[string]any{"name": name, "emptyDir": map[string]any{}})
+		}
+	}
+	spec := map[string]any{"restartPolicy": "Never", "containers": containers, "volumes": volumes}
+	if len(hostnames) > 0 {
+		spec["hostAliases"] = []any{map[string]any{"ip": "127.0.0.1", "hostnames": hostnames}}
+	}
+	if p.options.MaxLifetime > 0 {
+		spec["activeDeadlineSeconds"] = max(1, int64(p.options.MaxLifetime.Seconds()))
+	}
+	return mergeManifest(template, map[string]any{"apiVersion": "v1", "kind": "Pod", "metadata": metadata, "spec": spec}, ""), nil
+}
+
+// mergeManifest merges over onto base like a strategic merge patch: maps key by key, map list items by name or volumeMounts by mountPath, env entries, volumes and other values replaced.
+func mergeManifest(base, over any, field string) any {
+	switch over := over.(type) {
+	case map[string]any:
+		merged := map[string]any{}
+		if base, ok := base.(map[string]any); ok {
+			maps.Copy(merged, base)
+		}
+		for key, value := range over {
+			merged[key] = mergeManifest(merged[key], value, key)
+		}
+		return merged
+	case []any:
+		key := cmp.Or(map[string]string{"volumeMounts": "mountPath"}[field], "name")
+		baseList, _ := base.([]any)
+		merged := slices.Clone(baseList)
+		for _, item := range over {
+			if _, ok := item.(map[string]any); !ok {
+				return over
+			}
+			name := manifestField(item, key)
+			index := slices.IndexFunc(merged, func(existing any) bool { return name != "" && manifestField(existing, key) == name })
+			switch {
+			case index < 0:
+				merged = append(merged, item)
+			case field == "env" || field == "volumes": // each holds one source, merging two makes a pod the API rejects
+				merged[index] = item
+			default:
+				merged[index] = mergeManifest(merged[index], item, "")
+			}
+		}
+		return merged
+	}
+	return over
+}
+
+func manifestField(item any, key string) string {
+	fields, _ := item.(map[string]any)
+	value, _ := fields[key].(string)
+	return value
+}
+
+func (c *kubernetesContainer) spec(secret string, secretData map[string]string) (map[string]any, error) {
+	env := []any{}
+	for index, entry := range c.input.Env {
+		key, value, _ := strings.Cut(entry, "=")
+		if c == c.pod.job {
+			env = append(env, map[string]any{"name": key, "value": value})
+			continue
+		}
+		secretKey := fmt.Sprintf("%s.%d", c.name, index)
+		secretData[secretKey] = value
+		env = append(env, map[string]any{"name": key, "valueFrom": map[string]any{"secretKeyRef": map[string]any{"name": secret, "key": secretKey}}})
+	}
+	spec := map[string]any{
+		"name": c.name, "image": c.input.Image, "command": escapeExpansion(c.input.Entrypoint), "args": escapeExpansion(c.input.Cmd),
+		"workingDir": c.input.WorkingDir, "env": env,
+	}
+	if c.pod.options.ForcePull {
+		spec["imagePullPolicy"] = "Always"
+	}
+	if c == c.pod.job {
+		spec["volumeMounts"] = []any{
+			map[string]any{"name": "workspace", "mountPath": c.input.WorkingDir},
+			map[string]any{"name": "act", "mountPath": c.GetActPath()},
+		}
+	}
+	if err := c.parseOptions(); err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("service %s: %w", c.name, err)
+	}
+	if c.probe != nil {
+		spec["startupProbe"] = c.probe
+	}
+	return spec, nil
+}
+
+// escapeExpansion keeps kubelet from expanding $(VAR) and $$ in command and args, which docker passes as is.
+func escapeExpansion(args []string) []string {
+	args = slices.Clone(args)
+	for index := range args {
+		args[index] = strings.ReplaceAll(args[index], "$", "$$")
+	}
+	return args
+}
+
+// parseOptions turns docker health options, the only ones a pod supports, into a startup probe, which like docker gives up after the retries.
+func (c *kubernetesContainer) parseOptions() error {
+	args, err := shellquote.Split(c.input.WorkflowOptions)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	flags := pflag.NewFlagSet("options", pflag.ContinueOnError)
+	flags.SetOutput(io.Discard)
+	command := flags.String("health-cmd", "", "")
+	interval := flags.Duration("health-interval", 0, "")
+	timeout := flags.Duration("health-timeout", 0, "")
+	retries := flags.Int("health-retries", 0, "")
+	startPeriod := flags.Duration("health-start-period", 0, "")
+	if err := flags.Parse(args); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("options %q: %w, only --health-* options are supported on Kubernetes", c.input.WorkflowOptions, err)
+	}
+	if *command == "" {
+		return nil
+	}
+	period := max(1, int(cmp.Or(*interval, 30*time.Second).Seconds()))
+	c.probe = map[string]any{
+		"exec":             map[string]any{"command": []string{"/bin/sh", "-c", *command}},
+		"periodSeconds":    period,
+		"timeoutSeconds":   max(1, int(cmp.Or(*timeout, 30*time.Second).Seconds())),
+		"failureThreshold": max(1, cmp.Or(*retries, 3)) + int(startPeriod.Seconds())/period, // docker does not count failures in the start period
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (p *KubernetesPod) get(ctx context.Context) (*podStatus, error) {
+	var pod podStatus
+	return &pod, p.client.do(ctx, http.MethodGet, p.client.path("pods/"+p.name), nil, &pod)
+}
+
+func (p *KubernetesPod) waitStarted(ctx context.Context) error {
+	var unscheduled string
+	for delay := 100 * time.Millisecond; ; delay = min(2*delay, time.Second) {
+		pod, err := p.get(ctx)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		if pod.Status.Phase == "Failed" {
+			return fmt.Errorf("pod %s failed: %s", p.name, cmp.Or(pod.Status.Message, pod.Status.Reason))
+		}
+		started := len(pod.Status.ContainerStatuses) == len(pod.Spec.Containers)
+		for _, status := range append(pod.Status.InitContainerStatuses, pod.Status.ContainerStatuses...) {
+			if waiting := status.State.Waiting; waiting != nil {
+				switch waiting.Reason {
+				case "ErrImagePull", "ImagePullBackOff", "InvalidImageName", "ErrImageNeverPull", "CreateContainerConfigError", "CreateContainerError", "RunContainerError":
+					return fmt.Errorf("container %s of pod %s: %s: %s", status.Name, p.name, waiting.Reason, waiting.Message)
+				}
+				started = false
+			}
+		}
+		if started {
+			return nil
+		}
+		for _, condition := range pod.Status.Conditions {
+			if condition.Type == "PodScheduled" && condition.Status == "False" && condition.Message != unscheduled {
+				unscheduled = condition.Message
+				common.Logger(ctx).Infof("Waiting for pod %s to be scheduled: %s", p.name, unscheduled)
+			}
+		}
+		select {
+		case <-ctx.Done():
+			return ctx.Err()
+		case <-time.After(delay):
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func (c *kubernetesContainer) Create(_, _ []string) common.Executor {
+	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
+		if c != c.pod.job {
+			return nil
+		}
+		return c.pod.create(ctx)
+	}
+}
+
+func (c *kubernetesContainer) Start(_ bool) common.Executor {
+	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
+		if c != c.pod.job {
+			return nil
+		}
+		if err := c.pod.waitStarted(ctx); err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		var stdout bytes.Buffer
+		if err := c.pod.client.exec(ctx, c.pod.name, c.name, []string{"sh", "-c", `printf '%s\n%s' "$(uname -m)" "$PATH"`}, nil, &stdout, io.Discard); err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		machine, path, _ := strings.Cut(stdout.String(), "\n")
+		c.pod.arch, c.pod.path = goArchToActionArch(machine), path
+		return nil
+	}
+}
+
+func (*kubernetesContainer) Pull(bool) common.Executor {
+	return func(context.Context) error { return nil }
+}
+
+var (
+	shellName    = regexp.MustCompile(`^[A-Za-z_][A-Za-z0-9_]*$`)
+	bashReadonly = []string{"BASHOPTS", "BASH_VERSINFO", "EUID", "PPID", "SHELLOPTS", "UID"} // bash as sh cannot export these
+)
+
+// Exec feeds the command to sh on stdin, which exports the env so it stays out of the request URL and, where sh can export a name, out of process arguments.
+func (c *kubernetesContainer) Exec(command []string, env map[string]string, _, workdir string) common.Executor {
+	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
+		script, args := "", []string{"env", "--"}
+		for name, value := range env {
+			if shellName.MatchString(name) && !slices.Contains(bashReadonly, name) {
+				script += "command export " + shellquote.Join(name+"="+value) + "\n"
+			} else {
+				args = append(args, name+"="+value)
+			}
+		}
+		script += "exec " + shellquote.Join(append(args, command...)...)
+		if workdir != "" {
+			script = "cd " + shellquote.Join(workdir) + " || exit\n" + script
+		}
+		defer common.FlushWriter(c.input.Stdout)
+		defer common.FlushWriter(c.input.Stderr)
+		return c.pod.client.exec(ctx, c.pod.name, c.name, []string{"sh"}, strings.NewReader(script), c.input.Stdout, c.input.Stderr)
+	}
+}
+
+func (c *kubernetesContainer) extract(ctx context.Context, destPath string, write func(io.Writer) error) error {
+	reader, writer := io.Pipe()
+	defer reader.Close()
+	go func() { writer.CloseWithError(write(writer)) }()
+	var stderr bytes.Buffer
+	if err := c.pod.client.exec(ctx, c.pod.name, c.name, []string{"sh", "-c", `mkdir -p "$1" && tar -xf - -C "$1"`, "sh", destPath}, reader, io.Discard, &stderr); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("extract to %s: %w: %s", destPath, err, strings.TrimSpace(stderr.String()))
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c *kubernetesContainer) Copy(destPath string, files ...*FileEntry) common.Executor {
+	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
+		return c.extract(ctx, destPath, func(writer io.Writer) error { return writeFilesTar(ctx, writer, 0, 0, files...) })
+	}
+}
+
+func (c *kubernetesContainer) CopyDir(destPath, srcPath string, useGitIgnore, skipGitDir bool) common.Executor {
+	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
+		return c.extract(ctx, "/", func(writer io.Writer) error {
+			return writeDirTar(ctx, writer, destPath, srcPath, useGitIgnore, skipGitDir, 0, 0)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+// GetContainerArchive streams the archive, checking the path first as tar writes an empty archive for a missing one.
+func (c *kubernetesContainer) GetContainerArchive(ctx context.Context, srcPath string) (io.ReadCloser, error) {
+	reader, writer := io.Pipe()
+	go func() {
+		var stderr bytes.Buffer
+		err := c.pod.client.exec(ctx, c.pod.name, c.name, []string{"sh", "-c", `test -e "$1" -o -L "$1" && exec tar -cf - -C "$2" "$3"`, "sh", srcPath, path.Dir(srcPath), path.Base(srcPath)}, nil, writer, &stderr)
+		if err != nil {
+			err = fmt.Errorf("archive %s: %w: %s", srcPath, err, strings.TrimSpace(stderr.String()))
+		}
+		writer.CloseWithError(err)
+	}()
+	buffered := bufio.NewReader(reader)
+	if _, err := buffered.Peek(1); err != nil {
+		reader.Close()
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	return struct {
+		io.Reader
+		io.Closer
+	}{buffered, reader}, nil
+}
+
+func (c *kubernetesContainer) UpdateFromEnv(srcPath string, env *map[string]string) common.Executor {
+	return parseEnvFile(c, srcPath, env)
+}
+
+func (c *kubernetesContainer) UpdateFromImageEnv(env *map[string]string) common.Executor {
+	return func(context.Context) error {
+		(*env)["PATH"] = cmp.Or((*env)["PATH"], c.pod.path)
+		return nil
+	}
+}
+
+func (c *kubernetesContainer) Inspect(ctx context.Context) (*Info, error) {
+	if c.pod.name == "" {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("container %s %w", c.name, ErrContainerNotFound)
+	}
+	pod, err := c.pod.get(ctx)
+	if isNotFound(err) {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("pod %s %w", c.pod.name, ErrContainerNotFound)
+	} else if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	info := &Info{ID: c.pod.name + "/" + c.name, State: "created", Health: HealthNone, Ports: map[string]string{}}
+	for port := range c.input.ExposedPorts {
+		info.Ports[port.Port()] = port.Port() // services share the pod's network
+	}
+	for _, status := range pod.Status.ContainerStatuses {
+		if status.Name != c.name {
+			continue
+		}
+		if status.State.Running != nil {
+			info.State = StateRunning
+		} else if terminated := status.State.Terminated; terminated != nil {
+			info.State, info.ExitCode, info.HealthOutput = "exited", terminated.ExitCode, terminated.Message
+		}
+		if c.probe != nil {
+			switch {
+			case status.Ready:
+				info.Health = HealthHealthy
+			case info.State == "exited":
+				info.Health = HealthUnhealthy
+			default:
+				info.Health = HealthStarting
+			}
+		}
+	}
+	return info, nil
+}
+
+func (c *kubernetesContainer) DumpLogs(ctx context.Context) error {
+	if c.pod.name == "" {
+		return fmt.Errorf("container %s %w", c.name, ErrContainerNotFound)
+	}
+	defer common.FlushWriter(c.input.Stdout)
+	return c.pod.client.do(ctx, http.MethodGet, c.pod.client.path("pods/"+c.pod.name+"/log?container="+c.name), nil, c.input.Stdout)
+}
+
+func (c *kubernetesContainer) Remove() common.Executor {
+	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
+		if c != c.pod.job {
+			return nil
+		}
+		return errors.Join(c.pod.client.delete(ctx, "pods", c.pod.name), c.pod.client.delete(ctx, "secrets", c.pod.secretName))
+	}
+}
+
+// RemoveOrphanKubernetesResources removes this runner's job pods created before createdBefore and the Secrets named like them, as listing Secrets would reveal all of the namespace's.
+func RemoveOrphanKubernetesResources(ctx context.Context, options KubernetesOptions, createdBefore time.Time) error {
+	client, err := newKubeClient(options.Kubeconfig, options.Namespace)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("connect to Kubernetes: %w", err)
+	}
+	defer client.http.CloseIdleConnections()
+	var pods struct {
+		Items []struct {
+			Metadata struct {
+				Name              string
+				CreationTimestamp time.Time
+			}
+		}
+	}
+	if err := client.do(ctx, http.MethodGet, client.path("pods?labelSelector="+url.QueryEscape(runnerUUIDLabel+"="+options.RunnerUUID)), nil, &pods); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("list pods: %w", err)
+	}
+	var errs []error
+	for _, item := range pods.Items {
+		if !item.Metadata.CreationTimestamp.Before(createdBefore) {
+			continue
+		}
+		if err := client.delete(ctx, "secrets", item.Metadata.Name); err != nil {
+			errs = append(errs, err) // leave the pod for the next cleanup, it is the only way back to its Secret
+			continue
+		}
+		errs = append(errs, client.delete(ctx, "pods", item.Metadata.Name))
+	}
+	return errors.Join(errs...)
+}
+
+func (c *kubernetesContainer) Close() common.Executor {
+	return func(context.Context) error {
+		c.pod.client.http.CloseIdleConnections()
+		return nil
+	}
+}
+
+func (c *kubernetesContainer) ReplaceLogWriter(stdout, stderr io.Writer) (io.Writer, io.Writer) {
+	oldStdout, oldStderr := c.input.Stdout, c.input.Stderr
+	c.input.Stdout, c.input.Stderr = stdout, stderr
+	return oldStdout, oldStderr
+}
+
+func (c *kubernetesContainer) GetRunnerContext(_ context.Context) map[string]any {
+	return map[string]any{"os": "Linux", "arch": c.pod.arch, "temp": "/tmp", "tool_cache": DefaultToolCache}
+}

act/container/kubernetes_client.go

@@ -0,0 +1,400 @@
+// Copyright 2026 The Gitea Authors. All rights reserved.
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+
+package container
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"cmp"
+	"context"
+	"crypto/tls"
+	"crypto/x509"
+	"encoding/base64"
+	"encoding/json"
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"io"
+	"net"
+	"net/http"
+	"net/url"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"strconv"
+	"strings"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/coder/websocket"
+	"go.yaml.in/yaml/v4"
+)
+
+const (
+	serviceAccountDir = "/var/run/secrets/kubernetes.io/serviceaccount"
+	execProtocol      = "v5.channel.k8s.io"
+)
+
+type kubeClient struct {
+	server, namespace, token string
+	tokenFile                string // re-read on every request, service account tokens rotate
+	inCluster                bool
+	http                     *http.Client
+}
+
+type apiError struct {
+	code    int
+	message string
+}
+
+func (e *apiError) Error() string { return e.message }
+
+func isNotFound(err error) bool {
+	var apiErr *apiError
+	return errors.As(err, &apiErr) && apiErr.code == http.StatusNotFound
+}
+
+func newKubeClient(kubeconfig, namespace string) (*kubeClient, error) {
+	client := &kubeClient{namespace: namespace}
+	transport := &http.Transport{Proxy: http.ProxyFromEnvironment, TLSClientConfig: &tls.Config{MinVersion: tls.VersionTLS12}}
+	if host := os.Getenv("KUBERNETES_SERVICE_HOST"); host != "" && kubeconfig == "" {
+		if err := client.loadInCluster(host, transport.TLSClientConfig); err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+	} else if err := client.loadKubeconfig(kubeconfig, transport); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	client.http = &http.Client{Transport: transport}
+	return client, nil
+}
+
+func (c *kubeClient) loadInCluster(host string, tlsConfig *tls.Config) error {
+	c.server = "https://" + net.JoinHostPort(host, os.Getenv("KUBERNETES_SERVICE_PORT"))
+	c.tokenFile = serviceAccountDir + "/token"
+	ca, err := os.ReadFile(serviceAccountDir + "/ca.crt")
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	tlsConfig.RootCAs = x509.NewCertPool()
+	tlsConfig.RootCAs.AppendCertsFromPEM(ca)
+	if c.namespace == "" {
+		namespace, err := os.ReadFile(serviceAccountDir + "/namespace")
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		c.namespace = strings.TrimSpace(string(namespace))
+	}
+	c.inCluster = true
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c *kubeClient) loadKubeconfig(path string, transport *http.Transport) error {
+	if paths := filepath.SplitList(os.Getenv("KUBECONFIG")); path == "" && len(paths) > 0 {
+		path = paths[0]
+	}
+	if path == "" {
+		home, err := os.UserHomeDir()
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		path = filepath.Join(home, ".kube", "config")
+	}
+	content, err := os.ReadFile(path)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("no in-cluster service account and no kubeconfig: %w", err)
+	}
+	var config struct {
+		CurrentContext string `yaml:"current-context"`
+		Contexts       []struct {
+			Name    string
+			Context struct{ Cluster, User, Namespace string }
+		}
+		Clusters []struct {
+			Name    string
+			Cluster struct {
+				Server                   string
+				TLSServerName            string `yaml:"tls-server-name"`
+				InsecureSkipTLSVerify    bool   `yaml:"insecure-skip-tls-verify"`
+				ProxyURL                 string `yaml:"proxy-url"`
+				CertificateAuthority     string `yaml:"certificate-authority"`
+				CertificateAuthorityData string `yaml:"certificate-authority-data"`
+			}
+		}
+		Users []struct {
+			Name string
+			User struct {
+				Token                 string
+				TokenFile             string `yaml:"tokenFile"`
+				ClientCertificate     string `yaml:"client-certificate"`
+				ClientCertificateData string `yaml:"client-certificate-data"`
+				ClientKey             string `yaml:"client-key"`
+				ClientKeyData         string `yaml:"client-key-data"`
+				Exec                  any
+				AuthProvider          any `yaml:"auth-provider"`
+			}
+		}
+	}
+	if err := yaml.Unmarshal(content, &config); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("parse kubeconfig %s: %w", path, err)
+	}
+	var current struct{ Cluster, User, Namespace string }
+	for _, entry := range config.Contexts {
+		if entry.Name == config.CurrentContext {
+			current = entry.Context
+		}
+	}
+	if current.Cluster == "" {
+		return fmt.Errorf("kubeconfig %s has no current context", path)
+	}
+	c.namespace = cmp.Or(c.namespace, current.Namespace, "default")
+
+	resolve := func(file string) string {
+		if file == "" || filepath.IsAbs(file) {
+			return file
+		}
+		return filepath.Join(filepath.Dir(path), file)
+	}
+	read := func(data, file string) ([]byte, error) {
+		if data != "" {
+			return base64.StdEncoding.DecodeString(data)
+		}
+		if file == "" {
+			return nil, nil
+		}
+		return os.ReadFile(resolve(file))
+	}
+
+	tlsConfig := transport.TLSClientConfig
+	for _, cluster := range config.Clusters {
+		if cluster.Name != current.Cluster {
+			continue
+		}
+		c.server = strings.TrimSuffix(cluster.Cluster.Server, "/")
+		tlsConfig.ServerName, tlsConfig.InsecureSkipVerify = cluster.Cluster.TLSServerName, cluster.Cluster.InsecureSkipTLSVerify
+		if cluster.Cluster.ProxyURL != "" {
+			proxy, err := url.Parse(cluster.Cluster.ProxyURL)
+			if err != nil {
+				return fmt.Errorf("kubeconfig %s: %w", path, err)
+			}
+			transport.Proxy = http.ProxyURL(proxy)
+		}
+		ca, err := read(cluster.Cluster.CertificateAuthorityData, cluster.Cluster.CertificateAuthority)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		if ca != nil {
+			tlsConfig.RootCAs = x509.NewCertPool()
+			tlsConfig.RootCAs.AppendCertsFromPEM(ca)
+		}
+	}
+	for _, user := range config.Users {
+		if user.Name != current.User {
+			continue
+		}
+		if user.User.Exec != nil || user.User.AuthProvider != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("kubeconfig %s: user %q authenticates through a credential plugin, which the runner does not support, use a token or client certificate", path, user.Name)
+		}
+		c.token, c.tokenFile = user.User.Token, resolve(user.User.TokenFile)
+		cert, err := read(user.User.ClientCertificateData, user.User.ClientCertificate)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		key, err := read(user.User.ClientKeyData, user.User.ClientKey)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		if cert != nil {
+			pair, err := tls.X509KeyPair(cert, key)
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			tlsConfig.Certificates = []tls.Certificate{pair}
+		}
+	}
+	if c.server == "" {
+		return fmt.Errorf("kubeconfig %s names no server for context %q", path, config.CurrentContext)
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c *kubeClient) authorize(header http.Header) error {
+	token := c.token
+	if c.tokenFile != "" {
+		content, err := os.ReadFile(c.tokenFile)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		token = strings.TrimSpace(string(content))
+	}
+	if token != "" {
+		header.Set("Authorization", "Bearer "+token)
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c *kubeClient) path(resource string) string {
+	return "/api/v1/namespaces/" + c.namespace + "/" + resource
+}
+
+func (c *kubeClient) do(ctx context.Context, method, path string, in, out any) error {
+	var body io.Reader
+	if in != nil {
+		content, err := json.Marshal(in)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		body = bytes.NewReader(content)
+	}
+	req, err := http.NewRequestWithContext(ctx, method, c.server+path, body)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	if err := c.authorize(req.Header); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	req.Header.Set("Content-Type", "application/json")
+	resp, err := c.http.Do(req)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	defer resp.Body.Close()
+	if resp.StatusCode >= http.StatusMultipleChoices {
+		return statusError(resp)
+	}
+	if out == nil {
+		out = io.Discard // draining lets the connection be reused
+	}
+	if writer, ok := out.(io.Writer); ok {
+		_, err = io.Copy(writer, resp.Body)
+		return err
+	}
+	return json.NewDecoder(resp.Body).Decode(out)
+}
+
+func (c *kubeClient) delete(ctx context.Context, resource, name string) error {
+	if name == "" {
+		return nil
+	}
+	if err := c.do(ctx, http.MethodDelete, c.path(resource+"/"+name), nil, nil); err != nil && !isNotFound(err) {
+		return fmt.Errorf("delete %s %s: %w", resource, name, err)
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func statusError(resp *http.Response) error {
+	content, _ := io.ReadAll(resp.Body)
+	var status struct{ Message string }
+	if json.Unmarshal(content, &status) != nil || status.Message == "" {
+		status.Message = strings.TrimSpace(string(content))
+	}
+	return &apiError{code: resp.StatusCode, message: status.Message}
+}
+
+func (c *kubeClient) exec(ctx context.Context, pod, containerName string, command []string, stdin io.Reader, stdout, stderr io.Writer) error {
+	query := url.Values{"container": {containerName}, "command": command, "stdout": {"true"}, "stderr": {"true"}}
+	if stdin != nil {
+		query.Set("stdin", "true")
+	}
+	header := http.Header{}
+	if err := c.authorize(header); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithCancelCause(ctx)
+	defer cancel(nil)
+	conn, resp, err := websocket.Dial(ctx, c.server+c.path("pods/"+pod+"/exec?")+query.Encode(), &websocket.DialOptions{
+		HTTPClient:   c.http,
+		HTTPHeader:   header,
+		Subprotocols: []string{execProtocol},
+	})
+	if err != nil {
+		if resp != nil && resp.StatusCode >= http.StatusMultipleChoices {
+			defer resp.Body.Close()
+			err = statusError(resp)
+		}
+		return fmt.Errorf("exec in pod %s: %w", pod, err)
+	}
+	defer func() { _ = conn.CloseNow() }()
+	if conn.Subprotocol() != execProtocol {
+		return fmt.Errorf("the Kubernetes API server does not speak %s, which needs Kubernetes 1.30 or later", execProtocol)
+	}
+	conn.SetReadLimit(-1)
+
+	if stdin != nil {
+		go func() {
+			if err := sendStdin(ctx, conn, stdin); err != nil {
+				cancel(err)
+			}
+		}()
+	}
+	go func() {
+		ticker := time.NewTicker(5 * time.Second)
+		defer ticker.Stop()
+		for {
+			select {
+			case <-ctx.Done():
+				return
+			case <-ticker.C:
+				if conn.Ping(ctx) != nil {
+					return
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	}()
+
+	for {
+		_, frame, err := conn.Read(ctx)
+		if err != nil {
+			return cmp.Or(context.Cause(ctx), fmt.Errorf("exec in pod %s ended without an exit status: %w", pod, err))
+		}
+		if len(frame) < 2 {
+			continue
+		}
+		switch frame[0] {
+		case 1:
+			_, err = stdout.Write(frame[1:])
+		case 2:
+			_, err = stderr.Write(frame[1:])
+		case 3:
+			return cmp.Or(context.Cause(ctx), execStatus(frame[1:]))
+		}
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func sendStdin(ctx context.Context, conn *websocket.Conn, stdin io.Reader) error {
+	frame := make([]byte, 1+32*1024) // frame[0] is the stdin channel, 0
+	for {
+		n, err := stdin.Read(frame[1:])
+		if n > 0 {
+			if err := conn.Write(ctx, websocket.MessageBinary, frame[:1+n]); err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+		}
+		if errors.Is(err, io.EOF) {
+			return conn.Write(ctx, websocket.MessageBinary, []byte{255, 0}) // v5 close signal for stdin
+		}
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func execStatus(content []byte) error {
+	var status struct {
+		Status, Message string
+		Details         struct {
+			Causes []struct{ Reason, Message string }
+		}
+	}
+	if err := json.Unmarshal(content, &status); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("decode exec status: %w", err)
+	}
+	if status.Status == "Success" {
+		return nil
+	}
+	for _, cause := range status.Details.Causes {
+		if code, err := strconv.Atoi(cause.Message); cause.Reason == "ExitCode" && err == nil {
+			return ExitCodeError(code)
+		}
+	}
+	return fmt.Errorf("exec failed: %s", status.Message)
+}

act/container/kubernetes_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,290 @@
+// Copyright 2026 The Gitea Authors. All rights reserved.
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+
+package container
+
+import (
+	"archive/tar"
+	"bytes"
+	"encoding/json"
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"io"
+	"net/http"
+	"net/http/httptest"
+	"os"
+	"os/exec"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"runtime"
+	"strings"
+	"sync"
+	"testing"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/coder/websocket"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+)
+
+type podManifest struct {
+	Metadata struct{ Labels map[string]string }
+	Spec     struct {
+		AutomountServiceAccountToken bool
+		EnableServiceLinks           bool
+		HostAliases                  []struct{ Hostnames []string }
+		Volumes                      []map[string]any
+		Containers                   []struct {
+			Name, ImagePullPolicy string
+			Resources             map[string]any
+			StartupProbe          *struct{ PeriodSeconds, TimeoutSeconds, FailureThreshold int }
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+type fakeCluster struct {
+	mu       sync.Mutex
+	requests map[string][]string
+}
+
+func (f *fakeCluster) record(request, content string) {
+	f.mu.Lock()
+	defer f.mu.Unlock()
+	f.requests[request] = append(f.requests[request], content)
+}
+
+func fakeKubernetes(t *testing.T, podStatus string) (string, *fakeCluster) {
+	cluster := &fakeCluster{requests: map[string][]string{}}
+	server := httptest.NewServer(http.HandlerFunc(func(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
+		if r.Header.Get("Authorization") != "Bearer test-token" {
+			w.WriteHeader(http.StatusUnauthorized)
+			return
+		}
+		body, err := io.ReadAll(r.Body)
+		assert.NoError(t, err)
+		cluster.record(r.Method+" "+r.URL.Path, string(body))
+		pods, secrets := "/api/v1/namespaces/ci/pods", "/api/v1/namespaces/ci/secrets"
+		switch {
+		case r.Method == http.MethodGet && r.URL.Path == pods:
+			cluster.record("list", r.URL.Query().Get("labelSelector"))
+			_, _ = io.WriteString(w, `{"items":[{"metadata":{"name":"old","creationTimestamp":"2020-01-01T00:00:00Z"}},{"metadata":{"name":"new","creationTimestamp":"2999-01-01T00:00:00Z"}}]}`)
+		case strings.HasSuffix(r.URL.Path, "/exec"):
+			cluster.record("exec", r.URL.RawQuery)
+			serveLocalExec(t, w, r)
+		case strings.HasSuffix(r.URL.Path, "/log"):
+			_, _ = io.WriteString(w, "log of "+r.URL.Query().Get("container"))
+		case r.Method == http.MethodGet && strings.HasPrefix(r.URL.Path, pods+"/"):
+			_, _ = io.WriteString(w, podStatus)
+		case r.Method == http.MethodPost && (r.URL.Path == pods || r.URL.Path == secrets), r.Method == http.MethodDelete:
+		default:
+			w.WriteHeader(http.StatusNotFound)
+		}
+	}))
+	t.Cleanup(server.Close)
+	kubeconfig := filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "kubeconfig")
+	require.NoError(t, os.WriteFile(filepath.Join(filepath.Dir(kubeconfig), "token"), []byte("test-token\n"), 0o600))
+	require.NoError(t, os.WriteFile(kubeconfig, fmt.Appendf(nil, `
+current-context: test
+contexts: [{name: test, context: {cluster: test, user: test, namespace: ci}}]
+clusters: [{name: test, cluster: {server: "http://kubernetes.invalid", proxy-url: %q}}]
+users: [{name: test, user: {tokenFile: token}}]
+`, server.URL), 0o600))
+	return kubeconfig, cluster
+}
+
+func serveLocalExec(t *testing.T, w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
+	conn, err := websocket.Accept(w, r, &websocket.AcceptOptions{Subprotocols: []string{execProtocol}})
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+	defer func() { _ = conn.CloseNow() }()
+	conn.SetReadLimit(-1)
+	command := r.URL.Query()["command"]
+	var stdin bytes.Buffer
+	for r.URL.Query().Get("stdin") == "true" {
+		_, frame, err := conn.Read(r.Context())
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Error(err)
+			return
+		}
+		if frame[0] == 255 {
+			break
+		}
+		stdin.Write(frame[1:])
+	}
+	cmd := exec.Command(command[0], command[1:]...)
+	cmd.Env = append(os.Environ(), "COPYFILE_DISABLE=1")
+	var stdout, stderr bytes.Buffer
+	cmd.Stdin, cmd.Stdout, cmd.Stderr = &stdin, &stdout, &stderr
+	status := `{"status":"Success"}`
+	var exitErr *exec.ExitError
+	if err := cmd.Run(); errors.As(err, &exitErr) {
+		status = fmt.Sprintf(`{"status":"Failure","reason":"NonZeroExitCode","details":{"causes":[{"reason":"ExitCode","message":"%d"}]}}`, exitErr.ExitCode())
+	} else {
+		assert.NoError(t, err)
+	}
+	for _, frame := range [][]byte{append([]byte{1}, stdout.Bytes()...), append([]byte{2}, stderr.Bytes()...), append([]byte{3}, status...)} {
+		_ = conn.Write(r.Context(), websocket.MessageBinary, frame)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestKubernetesPodRunsJobThroughAPI(t *testing.T) {
+	if runtime.GOOS == "windows" {
+		t.Skip("uses POSIX shell")
+	}
+	ctx := t.Context()
+	kubeconfig, cluster := fakeKubernetes(t, `{"spec":{"containers":[{},{}]},"status":{"phase":"Running","containerStatuses":[
+		{"name":"job","ready":true,"state":{"running":{}}},
+		{"name":"my-db","ready":true,"state":{"running":{}}}]}}`)
+	workdir, err := filepath.EvalSymlinks(t.TempDir())
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	options := KubernetesOptions{Kubeconfig: kubeconfig, RunnerUUID: "runner-uuid", PodTemplates: []map[string]any{
+		{"spec": map[string]any{
+			"automountServiceAccountToken": true,
+			"containers": []any{
+				map[string]any{"name": "job", "resources": map[string]any{"limits": map[string]any{"cpu": "2"}}},
+				map[string]any{
+					"name": "$services", "imagePullPolicy": "Always", "resources": map[string]any{"limits": map[string]any{"memory": "256Mi"}},
+					"env": []any{map[string]any{"name": "POSTGRES_PASSWORD", "value": "template"}},
+				},
+			},
+		}},
+		{"spec": map[string]any{
+			"volumes":    []any{map[string]any{"name": "workspace", "emptyDir": map[string]any{"sizeLimit": "1Gi"}}},
+			"containers": []any{map[string]any{"name": "job", "resources": map[string]any{"limits": map[string]any{"memory": "1Gi"}}}},
+		}},
+	}}
+	pod, err := NewKubernetesPod(options)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	var jobLog, serviceLog bytes.Buffer
+	job := pod.JobContainer(&NewContainerInput{Name: "Job-Name", Image: "node", WorkingDir: workdir, Stdout: &jobLog, Stderr: &jobLog})
+	service := pod.ServiceContainer("My_DB", &NewContainerInput{
+		Image:           "postgres",
+		Cmd:             []string{"postgres", "-D", "$(PGDATA)"},
+		Env:             []string{"POSTGRES_PASSWORD=service-secret"},
+		WorkflowOptions: "--health-cmd pg_isready --health-interval 2s --health-start-period 4s",
+		Stdout:          &serviceLog,
+	})
+
+	require.NoError(t, job.Create(nil, nil)(ctx))
+	var manifest podManifest
+	require.NoError(t, json.Unmarshal([]byte(cluster.requests["POST /api/v1/namespaces/ci/pods"][0]), &manifest))
+	assert.Equal(t, "gitea-runner", manifest.Metadata.Labels["app.kubernetes.io/managed-by"])
+	assert.Equal(t, "runner-uuid", manifest.Metadata.Labels[runnerUUIDLabel])
+	assert.True(t, manifest.Spec.AutomountServiceAccountToken)
+	assert.False(t, manifest.Spec.EnableServiceLinks)
+	assert.Equal(t, []string{"my-db"}, manifest.Spec.HostAliases[0].Hostnames)
+	require.Len(t, manifest.Spec.Containers, 2)
+	assert.Equal(t, map[string]any{"limits": map[string]any{"cpu": "2", "memory": "1Gi"}}, manifest.Spec.Containers[0].Resources)
+	assert.Empty(t, manifest.Spec.Containers[0].ImagePullPolicy)
+	assert.Equal(t, "my-db", manifest.Spec.Containers[1].Name)
+	assert.Equal(t, "Always", manifest.Spec.Containers[1].ImagePullPolicy)
+	assert.Equal(t, map[string]any{"limits": map[string]any{"memory": "256Mi"}}, manifest.Spec.Containers[1].Resources)
+	assert.Equal(t, []map[string]any{
+		{"name": "workspace", "emptyDir": map[string]any{"sizeLimit": "1Gi"}},
+		{"name": "act", "emptyDir": map[string]any{}},
+	}, manifest.Spec.Volumes)
+	assert.Equal(t, struct{ PeriodSeconds, TimeoutSeconds, FailureThreshold int }{2, 30, 5}, *manifest.Spec.Containers[1].StartupProbe)
+	assert.NotContains(t, cluster.requests["POST /api/v1/namespaces/ci/pods"][0], "service-secret")
+	assert.Contains(t, cluster.requests["POST /api/v1/namespaces/ci/secrets"][0], "service-secret")
+	assert.Contains(t, cluster.requests["POST /api/v1/namespaces/ci/secrets"][0], `"com.gitea.runner.uuid":"runner-uuid"`)
+	assert.Contains(t, cluster.requests["POST /api/v1/namespaces/ci/pods"][0], `{"name":"POSTGRES_PASSWORD","valueFrom":{"secretKeyRef":{"key":"my-db.0","name":"`+pod.secretName+`"}}}`)
+	assert.Equal(t, []any{"new"}, mergeManifest([]any{"old"}, []any{"new"}, ""))
+	mount := func(path string) any { return map[string]any{"name": "config", "mountPath": path} }
+	assert.Equal(t, []any{mount("/a"), mount("/b")}, mergeManifest([]any{mount("/a")}, []any{mount("/b")}, "volumeMounts"))
+	tmpfs := map[string]any{"name": "workspace", "emptyDir": map[string]any{"medium": "Memory"}}
+	ephemeral := map[string]any{"name": "workspace", "ephemeral": map[string]any{}}
+	assert.Equal(t, []any{ephemeral}, mergeManifest([]any{tmpfs}, []any{ephemeral}, "volumes"))
+	assert.Contains(t, cluster.requests["POST /api/v1/namespaces/ci/pods"][0], `"args":["postgres","-D","$$(PGDATA)"]`)
+
+	require.NoError(t, os.WriteFile(filepath.Join(workdir, "env"), []byte("#!/bin/sh\necho \"$@\" > \"$0-args\"\nexec /usr/bin/env \"$@\"\n"), 0o755))
+	t.Setenv("PATH", workdir+":"+os.Getenv("PATH"))
+	require.NoError(t, job.Start(false)(ctx))
+
+	stepEnv := map[string]string{"INPUT_WHO-TO-GREET": "it's\nme", "SECRET": "hunter2", "UID": "5"}
+	require.NoError(t, job.Exec([]string{"printenv", "SECRET"}, stepEnv, "", "")(ctx))
+	envArgs, err := os.ReadFile(filepath.Join(workdir, "env-args"))
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.NotContains(t, string(envArgs), "hunter2")
+	require.NoError(t, job.Exec([]string{"printenv", "INPUT_WHO-TO-GREET"}, stepEnv, "", "")(ctx))
+	require.NoError(t, job.Exec([]string{"printenv", "UID"}, stepEnv, "", "")(ctx))
+	require.NoError(t, job.Exec([]string{"pwd", "-P"}, nil, "", workdir)(ctx))
+	assert.Equal(t, "hunter2\nit's\nme\n5\n"+workdir+"\n", jobLog.String())
+	assert.Equal(t, ExitCodeError(3), job.Exec([]string{"sh", "-c", "echo failing >&2; exit 3"}, nil, "", "")(ctx))
+	assert.Contains(t, jobLog.String(), "failing\n")
+	for _, query := range cluster.requests["exec"] {
+		assert.NotContains(t, query, "hunter2")
+	}
+
+	require.NoError(t, job.Copy(workdir+"/act/", &FileEntry{Name: "workflow/event.json", Mode: 0o644, Body: `{"ref":"main"}`})(ctx))
+	archive, err := job.GetContainerArchive(ctx, workdir+"/act/workflow/event.json")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	reader := tar.NewReader(archive)
+	header, err := reader.Next()
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	content, err := io.ReadAll(reader)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Equal(t, "event.json", header.Name)
+	assert.JSONEq(t, `{"ref":"main"}`, string(content))
+	require.NoError(t, archive.Close())
+	_, err = job.GetContainerArchive(ctx, workdir+"/missing")
+	require.Error(t, err)
+
+	pathEnv := map[string]string{}
+	require.NoError(t, job.UpdateFromImageEnv(&pathEnv)(ctx))
+	assert.Equal(t, os.Getenv("PATH"), pathEnv["PATH"])
+
+	info, err := service.Inspect(ctx)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Equal(t, HealthHealthy, info.Health)
+	require.NoError(t, service.DumpLogs(ctx))
+	assert.Equal(t, "log of my-db", serviceLog.String())
+
+	require.NoError(t, job.Remove()(ctx))
+	assert.Len(t, cluster.requests["DELETE /api/v1/namespaces/ci/pods/"+pod.name], 1)
+	assert.Len(t, cluster.requests["DELETE /api/v1/namespaces/ci/secrets/"+pod.secretName], 1)
+
+	require.NoError(t, RemoveOrphanKubernetesResources(ctx, options, time.Now()))
+	assert.Equal(t, []string{runnerUUIDLabel + "=runner-uuid"}, cluster.requests["list"])
+	assert.Len(t, cluster.requests["DELETE /api/v1/namespaces/ci/pods/old"], 1)
+	assert.Len(t, cluster.requests["DELETE /api/v1/namespaces/ci/secrets/old"], 1)
+	assert.Empty(t, cluster.requests["DELETE /api/v1/namespaces/ci/pods/new"])
+	assert.Empty(t, cluster.requests["DELETE /api/v1/namespaces/ci/secrets/new"])
+}
+
+func TestKubernetesPodFailsBeforeSteps(t *testing.T) {
+	kubeconfig, _ := fakeKubernetes(t, `{"spec":{"containers":[{}]},"status":{"containerStatuses":[
+		{"name":"job","state":{"waiting":{"reason":"ErrImagePull","message":"no such image"}}}]}}`)
+	template := map[string]any{"spec": map[string]any{"containers": []any{map[string]any{"name": "sidecar"}}}}
+	for _, test := range []struct {
+		services     []string
+		options, err string
+	}{
+		{[]string{"db"}, "--hostname db", "only --health-* options are supported"},
+		{[]string{"sidecar"}, "", "named like another container"},
+		{[]string{"my_db", "My-DB"}, "", `service My-DB maps to container "my-db"`},
+	} {
+		pod, err := NewKubernetesPod(KubernetesOptions{Kubeconfig: kubeconfig, Namespace: "ci", PodTemplates: []map[string]any{template}})
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		job := pod.JobContainer(&NewContainerInput{Image: "node"})
+		for _, service := range test.services {
+			pod.ServiceContainer(service, &NewContainerInput{Image: "postgres", WorkflowOptions: test.options})
+		}
+		require.ErrorContains(t, job.Create(nil, nil)(t.Context()), test.err)
+	}
+	pod, err := NewKubernetesPod(KubernetesOptions{Kubeconfig: kubeconfig, Namespace: "ci"})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	job := pod.JobContainer(&NewContainerInput{Image: "missing"})
+	require.NoError(t, job.Create(nil, nil)(t.Context()))
+	require.ErrorContains(t, job.Start(false)(t.Context()), "ErrImagePull: no such image")
+
+	plugin := filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "kubeconfig")
+	require.NoError(t, os.WriteFile(plugin, []byte(`
+current-context: eks
+contexts: [{name: eks, context: {cluster: eks, user: eks}}]
+clusters: [{name: eks, cluster: {server: "https://eks.example"}}]
+users: [{name: eks, user: {exec: {command: aws}}}]
+`), 0o600))
+	_, err = NewKubernetesPod(KubernetesOptions{Kubeconfig: plugin})
+	require.ErrorContains(t, err, "credential plugin")
+}

act/container/tar.go

@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+// Copyright 2026 The Gitea Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2020 The nektos/act Authors. All rights reserved.
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+
+package container
+
+import (
+	"archive/tar"
+	"context"
+	"io"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"strings"
+
+	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/common"
+	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/filecollector"
+
+	"github.com/go-git/go-billy/v5/helper/polyfill"
+	"github.com/go-git/go-billy/v5/osfs"
+	"github.com/go-git/go-git/v5/plumbing/format/gitignore"
+)
+
+func writeFilesTar(ctx context.Context, w io.Writer, uid, gid int, files ...*FileEntry) error {
+	tw := tar.NewWriter(w)
+	for _, file := range files {
+		common.Logger(ctx).Debugf("Writing entry to tarball %s len:%d", file.Name, len(file.Body))
+		if err := tw.WriteHeader(&tar.Header{
+			Name: file.Name,
+			Mode: file.Mode,
+			Size: int64(len(file.Body)),
+			Uid:  uid,
+			Gid:  gid,
+		}); err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		if _, err := tw.Write([]byte(file.Body)); err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+	}
+	return tw.Close()
+}
+
+// writeDirTar prefixes entries with dstPath for extraction at root.
+func writeDirTar(ctx context.Context, w io.Writer, dstPath, srcPath string, useGitIgnore, skipGitDir bool, uid, gid int) error {
+	logger := common.Logger(ctx)
+	tw := tar.NewWriter(w)
+	srcPrefix := strings.TrimSuffix(filepath.Dir(srcPath), string(filepath.Separator)) + string(filepath.Separator)
+	logger.Debugf("Stripping prefix:%s src:%s", srcPrefix, srcPath)
+
+	var ignorer gitignore.Matcher
+	if useGitIgnore {
+		ps, err := gitignore.ReadPatterns(polyfill.New(osfs.New(srcPath)), nil)
+		if err != nil {
+			logger.Debugf("Error loading .gitignore: %v", err)
+		}
+
+		ignorer = gitignore.NewMatcher(ps)
+	}
+
+	if err := filepath.Walk(srcPath, (&filecollector.FileCollector{
+		Ignorer:    ignorer,
+		SrcPath:    srcPath,
+		SrcPrefix:  srcPrefix,
+		SkipGitDir: skipGitDir,
+		Handler:    &filecollector.TarCollector{TarWriter: tw, UID: uid, GID: gid, DstDir: dstPath[1:]},
+	}).CollectFiles(ctx, []string{})); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	return tw.Close()
+}

act/ghcontext/github_context.go

@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ import (
 	"context"
 	"fmt"
 	"strings"
+	"sync"
 
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/common"
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/common/git"
@@ -25,6 +26,26 @@ var (
 	findGithubRepo  = git.FindGithubRepo
 )
 
+type pinnedKey struct{}
+
+// WithPinnedCheckout keeps a run's sha and ref fixed when HEAD moves.
+func WithPinnedCheckout(ctx context.Context) context.Context {
+	if ctx.Value(pinnedKey{}) != nil {
+		return ctx
+	}
+	return context.WithValue(ctx, pinnedKey{}, &sync.Map{})
+}
+
+func pinned(ctx context.Context, key string, lookup func() (string, error)) (string, error) {
+	cache, ok := ctx.Value(pinnedKey{}).(*sync.Map)
+	if !ok {
+		return lookup()
+	}
+	cached, _ := cache.LoadOrStore(key, sync.OnceValues(lookup))
+	lookupOnce, _ := cached.(func() (string, error))
+	return lookupOnce()
+}
+
 // SetRef resolves the ref of the context from its event payload, falling back
 // to the ref checked out in repoPath.
 func SetRef(ctx context.Context, ghc *model.GithubContext, repoPath string) {
@@ -51,7 +72,7 @@ func SetRef(ctx context.Context, ghc *model.GithubContext, repoPath string) {
 	}
 
 	if ghc.Ref == "" {
-		ref, err := findGitRef(ctx, repoPath)
+		ref, err := pinned(ctx, "ref:"+repoPath, func() (string, error) { return findGitRef(ctx, repoPath) })
 		if err != nil {
 			logger.Warningf("unable to get git ref: %v", err)
 		} else {
@@ -95,7 +116,10 @@ func SetSha(ctx context.Context, ghc *model.GithubContext, repoPath string) {
 	}
 
 	if ghc.Sha == "" {
-		_, sha, err := findGitRevision(ctx, repoPath)
+		sha, err := pinned(ctx, "sha:"+repoPath, func() (string, error) {
+			_, revision, err := findGitRevision(ctx, repoPath)
+			return revision, err
+		})
 		if err != nil {
 			logger.Warningf("unable to get git revision: %v", err)
 		} else {

act/ghcontext/github_context_test.go

@@ -214,4 +214,17 @@ func TestSetSha(t *testing.T) {
 			assert.Equal(t, table.sha, ghc.Sha)
 		})
 	}
+
+	t.Run("pinned checkout keeps the first sha and ref", func(t *testing.T) {
+		ctx := WithPinnedCheckout(context.Background())
+		for _, head := range []string{"first", "moved"} {
+			findGitRevision = func(context.Context, string) (string, string, error) { return "", head, nil }
+			findGitRef = func(context.Context, string) (string, error) { return "refs/heads/" + head, nil }
+			ghc := &model.GithubContext{Event: map[string]any{}}
+			SetSha(ctx, ghc, "/some/dir")
+			SetRef(ctx, ghc, "/some/dir")
+			assert.Equal(t, "first", ghc.Sha)
+			assert.Equal(t, "refs/heads/first", ghc.Ref)
+		}
+	})
 }

act/runner/action.go

@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ package runner
 
 import (
 	"context"
+	"crypto/rand"
 	"crypto/sha256"
 	"embed"
 	"encoding/hex"
@@ -13,6 +14,7 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
 	"io/fs"
+	"maps"
 	"os"
 	"path"
 	"path/filepath"
@@ -286,11 +288,30 @@ func dockerActionImageTag(repository, actionName string, localAction bool) strin
 	return strings.ToLower(image)
 }
 
+// One image per step and job: its stages share a build, and concurrent jobs never run each other's.
+func (rc *RunContext) dockerActionImage(ctx context.Context, step actionStep, actionName string, localAction bool) string {
+	job := rc.topLevelRunContext()
+	if job.dockerActionImages == nil {
+		job.dockerActionImages = map[*model.Step]string{}
+	}
+	image, ok := job.dockerActionImages[step.getStepModel()]
+	if !ok {
+		image = dockerActionImageTag(step.getGithubContext(ctx).Repository, actionName, localAction) + "-" + strings.ToLower(rand.Text())
+		if !common.Dryrun(ctx) { // a dry run builds nothing to remove
+			job.dockerActionImages[step.getStepModel()] = image
+		}
+	}
+	return image
+}
+
 // TODO: break out parts of function to reduce complexicity
 func execAsDocker(ctx context.Context, step actionStep, actionName, actionDir, basedir string, localAction bool, stage stepStage) error {
 	logger := common.Logger(ctx)
 	rc := step.getRunContext()
 	action := step.getActionModel()
+	if rc.kubernetes {
+		return errKubernetesDocker
+	}
 
 	var prepImage common.Executor
 	var image string
@@ -300,7 +321,7 @@ func execAsDocker(ctx context.Context, step actionStep, actionName, actionDir, b
 		// Apply forcePull only for prebuild docker images
 		forcePull = rc.Config.ForcePull
 	} else {
-		image = dockerActionImageTag(step.getGithubContext(ctx).Repository, actionName, localAction)
+		image = rc.dockerActionImage(ctx, step, actionName, localAction)
 		contextDir, fileName := filepath.Split(filepath.Join(basedir, action.Runs.Image))
 
 		anyArchExists, err := ContainerImageExistsLocally(ctx, image, "any")
@@ -353,12 +374,7 @@ func execAsDocker(ctx context.Context, step actionStep, actionName, actionDir, b
 			logger.Debugf("image '%s' for architecture '%s' already exists", image, rc.Config.ContainerArchitecture)
 		}
 	}
-	eval := rc.NewActionInputsExpressionEvaluator(ctx, step)
-	args, err := eval.Interpolate(ctx, step.getStepModel().With["args"])
-	if err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate with.args: %w", err)
-	}
-	cmd, err := shellquote.Split(args)
+	cmd, err := shellquote.Split(step.getStepModel().With["args"])
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
@@ -375,14 +391,11 @@ func execAsDocker(ctx context.Context, step actionStep, actionName, actionDir, b
 			}
 		}
 	}
-	entrypoint, err := dockerEntrypoint(ctx, step, eval, stage)
-	if err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-	stepContainer, err := newStepContainer(ctx, step, image, cmd, entrypoint, rc.Config.ContainerOptions)
+	entrypoint, err := dockerEntrypoint(step, stage)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
+	stepContainer := newStepContainer(ctx, step, image, cmd, entrypoint, rc.Config.ContainerOptions)
 	return common.NewPipelineExecutor(
 		prepImage,
 		stepContainer.Pull(forcePull),
@@ -394,7 +407,7 @@ func execAsDocker(ctx context.Context, step actionStep, actionName, actionDir, b
 
 // dockerEntrypoint returns the entrypoint the action's image runs with for the given
 // stage. Only the main stage honours the `entrypoint` input.
-func dockerEntrypoint(ctx context.Context, step actionStep, eval *expressionEvaluator, stage stepStage) ([]string, error) {
+func dockerEntrypoint(step actionStep, stage stepStage) ([]string, error) {
 	runs := step.getActionModel().Runs
 
 	var entrypoint string
@@ -406,11 +419,7 @@ func dockerEntrypoint(ctx context.Context, step actionStep, eval *expressionEval
 	default:
 		entrypoint = runs.Entrypoint
 		if entrypoint == "" {
-			withEntrypoint, err := eval.Interpolate(ctx, step.getStepModel().With["entrypoint"])
-			if err != nil {
-				return nil, fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate with.entrypoint: %w", err)
-			}
-			if fields := strings.Fields(withEntrypoint); len(fields) > 0 {
+			if fields := strings.Fields(step.getStepModel().With["entrypoint"]); len(fields) > 0 {
 				return fields, nil
 			}
 		}
@@ -425,7 +434,6 @@ func dockerEntrypoint(ctx context.Context, step actionStep, eval *expressionEval
 // evalDockerEnv returns an evaluator bound to the environment it installed.
 func evalDockerEnv(ctx context.Context, step step, action *model.Action) (*expressionEvaluator, error) {
 	rc := step.getRunContext()
-	stepModel := step.getStepModel()
 
 	var err error
 	inputs := make(map[string]string)
@@ -436,40 +444,33 @@ func evalDockerEnv(ctx context.Context, step step, action *model.Action) (*expre
 			return nil, fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate the default of input %s: %w", k, err)
 		}
 	}
-	for k, v := range stepModel.With {
-		if inputs[k], err = eval.Interpolate(ctx, v); err != nil {
-			return nil, fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate with.%s: %w", k, err)
-		}
-	}
-	mergeIntoMap(step, step.getEnv(), inputs)
-
-	env := make(map[string]string, len(action.Runs.Env)+len(*step.getEnv()))
-	mergeIntoMap(step, &env, action.Runs.Env, *step.getEnv())
-	*step.getEnv() = env
+	mergeIntoMap(step, step.getEnv(), inputs, step.getStepModel().With)
 
 	ee := rc.NewActionInputsExpressionEvaluator(ctx, step)
-	for k, v := range *step.getEnv() {
-		if (*step.getEnv())[k], err = ee.Interpolate(ctx, v); err != nil {
+	runsEnv := make(map[string]string, len(action.Runs.Env))
+	for k, v := range action.Runs.Env {
+		if runsEnv[k], err = ee.Interpolate(ctx, v); err != nil {
 			return nil, fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate env %s: %w", k, err)
 		}
 	}
+	mergeIntoMap(step, step.getEnv(), runsEnv, maps.Clone(*step.getEnv()))
 	return ee, nil
 }
 
-func newStepContainer(ctx context.Context, step step, image string, cmd, entrypoint []string, runnerOptions string) (container.Container, error) {
+func newStepContainer(ctx context.Context, step step, image string, cmd, entrypoint []string, runnerOptions string) container.Container {
 	rc := step.getRunContext()
 	logWriter := rc.commandLogWriter(ctx)
 	envList := make([]string, 0)
 	for k, v := range *step.getEnv() {
+		if rc.IsHostEnv() && strings.EqualFold(k, rc.JobContainer.GetPathVariableName()) && v == rc.JobContainer.DefaultPathVariable() { // the runner's own PATH stays out, as on GitHub
+			continue
+		}
 		envList = append(envList, fmt.Sprintf("%s=%s", k, v))
 	}
 
 	envList = append(envList, rc.runnerEnv(ctx)...)
 
-	binds, mounts, err := rc.GetBindsAndMounts()
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
-	}
+	binds, mounts := rc.GetBindsAndMounts(ctx)
 	networkMode := "container:" + rc.jobContainerName()
 	if rc.IsHostEnv() {
 		networkMode = "default"
@@ -493,7 +494,7 @@ func newStepContainer(ctx context.Context, step step, image string, cmd, entrypo
 		AutoRemove:    true,
 		ValidVolumes:  rc.validVolumes(),
 		AllocatePTY:   rc.Config.AllocatePTY,
-	}), nil
+	})
 }
 
 func populateEnvsFromSavedState(env *map[string]string, step actionStep, rc *RunContext) {

act/runner/action_composite.go

@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ func evaluateCompositeInputAndEnv(ctx context.Context, parent *RunContext, step
 		}
 	}
 
-	ee := parent.NewActionInputsExpressionEvaluator(ctx, step)
+	ee := parent.NewStepExpressionEvaluator(ctx, step)
 
 	for inputID, input := range step.getActionModel().Inputs {
 		envKey := regexp.MustCompile("[^A-Z0-9-]").ReplaceAllString(strings.ToUpper(inputID), "_")
@@ -104,6 +104,9 @@ func newCompositeRunContext(ctx context.Context, parent *RunContext, step action
 		Parent:        parent,
 		EventJSON:     parent.EventJSON,
 		platformImage: parent.platformImage,
+		kubernetes:    parent.kubernetes,
+		jobIndex:      parent.jobIndex,
+		jobTotal:      parent.jobTotal,
 	}
 	compositerc.setCompositeActionEnv(env)
 	compositerc.ExprEval = compositerc.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx)

act/runner/action_composite_test.go

@@ -12,18 +12,21 @@ import (
 	"gitea.dev/actionslib/pkg/model"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+	"go.yaml.in/yaml/v4"
 )
 
 func TestCompositeActionParity(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Run("inherits contexts without leaking inputs", func(t *testing.T) {
 		ctx := t.Context()
-		strategy := &model.Strategy{MaxParallelString: "3"}
+		strategy := &model.Strategy{MaxParallelString: "3", RawMatrix: yaml.Node{Kind: yaml.MappingNode}}
 		parent := &RunContext{
 			Config:        &Config{},
 			Matrix:        map[string]any{"os": "linux"},
 			Run:           &model.Run{JobID: "job", Workflow: &model.Workflow{Name: "workflow", Jobs: map[string]*model.Job{"job": {Strategy: strategy}}}},
 			JobContainer:  &jobContainerMock{},
 			platformImage: "-self-hosted",
+			jobIndex:      1,
+			jobTotal:      4,
 		}
 		composite, err := newCompositeRunContext(ctx, parent, &stepActionRemote{
 			Step:       &model.Step{With: map[string]string{"SHARED": "outer"}},
@@ -36,9 +39,9 @@ func TestCompositeActionParity(t *testing.T) {
 		assert.Same(t, strategy, composite.Run.Job().Strategy)
 		assert.True(t, composite.IsHostEnv())
 		interpolated, err := composite.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx).Interpolate(ctx,
-			"${{ matrix.os }}|${{ strategy.max-parallel }}|${{ inputs.shared }}")
+			"${{ matrix.os }}|${{ strategy.max-parallel }}|${{ strategy.job-index }}|${{ inputs.shared }}")
 		require.NoError(t, err)
-		assert.Equal(t, "linux|3|outer", interpolated)
+		assert.Equal(t, "linux|3|1|outer", interpolated)
 		assert.NotContains(t, composite.Env, "INPUT_SHARED")
 
 		nestedEnv := composite.GetEnv()
@@ -117,3 +120,51 @@ func TestAppendUniqueMasksNoExponentialGrowth(t *testing.T) {
 
 	assert.Equal(t, []string{"secret"}, parentMasks)
 }
+
+func TestCompositeStepIfReadsJobStatusExceptInItsOwnMainSteps(t *testing.T) {
+	failStep := func(rc *RunContext) {
+		rc.StepResults["failed"] = &model.StepResult{Conclusion: model.StepStatusFailure}
+	}
+	tests := []struct {
+		name   string
+		setup  func(job, composite *RunContext)
+		nested bool
+		stage  stepStage
+		want   map[string]bool
+	}{
+		{"post-if reads the failed job", func(job, _ *RunContext) { failStep(job) }, false, stepStagePost, map[string]bool{"success()": false, "failure()": true, "job.status == 'failure'": true}},
+		{"main if ignores the failed job", func(job, _ *RunContext) { failStep(job) }, false, stepStageMain, map[string]bool{"success()": true, "failure()": false}},
+		{"main if reads the composite's own failure", func(_, composite *RunContext) { failStep(composite) }, false, stepStageMain, map[string]bool{"success()": false, "failure()": true}},
+		{"nested main if ignores the outer composite's failure", func(_, composite *RunContext) { failStep(composite) }, true, stepStageMain, map[string]bool{"success()": true}},
+		{"main if sees the cancelled job", func(job, _ *RunContext) { job.markCancelled() }, false, stepStageMain, map[string]bool{"cancelled()": true, "success()": false}},
+		{"post-if sees the cancelled job", func(job, _ *RunContext) { job.markCancelled() }, false, stepStagePost, map[string]bool{"cancelled()": true, "success()": false}},
+	}
+	for _, tt := range tests {
+		t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			job := makeTestRC(t, "runs-on: ubuntu-latest")
+			composite := newTestCompositeRunContext(t, job)
+			rc := composite
+			if tt.nested {
+				rc = newTestCompositeRunContext(t, composite)
+			}
+			tt.setup(job, composite)
+			step := &stepRun{RunContext: rc}
+			for expr, want := range tt.want {
+				enabled, err := isStepEnabled(t.Context(), expr, step, tt.stage)
+				require.NoError(t, err)
+				assert.Equal(t, want, enabled, expr)
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+func newTestCompositeRunContext(t *testing.T, parent *RunContext) *RunContext {
+	composite, err := newCompositeRunContext(t.Context(), parent, &stepActionRemote{
+		Step:       &model.Step{},
+		RunContext: parent,
+		action:     &model.Action{},
+		env:        map[string]string{},
+	}, "/action")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	return composite
+}

act/runner/action_test.go

@@ -242,7 +242,7 @@ func TestActionRunner(t *testing.T) {
 
 			tt.step.getRunContext().JobContainer = cm
 
-			err := runActionImpl(tt.step, "dir", newRemoteAction("org/repo/path@ref"))(ctx)
+			err := runActionImpl(tt.step, "dir", mustNewRemoteAction(t, "org/repo/path@ref"))(ctx)
 
 			assert.NoError(t, err) //nolint:testifylint // pre-existing issue from nektos/act
 			cm.AssertExpectations(t)
@@ -316,7 +316,7 @@ func TestNewStepContainerDoesNotUseDockerSecrets(t *testing.T) {
 	step.On("getStepModel").Return(&model.Step{ID: "action"})
 	step.On("getEnv").Return(&env)
 
-	_, _ = newStepContainer(ctx, step, "registry.example.com/action:tag", nil, nil, "")
+	newStepContainer(ctx, step, "registry.example.com/action:tag", nil, nil, "")
 
 	// DOCKER_USERNAME/DOCKER_PASSWORD should not be injected as pull credentials for docker action containers.
 	assert.Empty(t, captured.Username)
@@ -461,18 +461,11 @@ func TestExecAsDockerHoldsCloneLockForRemoteUncached(t *testing.T) {
 	case <-innerEntered:
 	case err := <-done:
 		t.Fatalf("execAsDocker returned without entering inner: %v", err)
-	case <-time.After(time.Second):
-		t.Fatal("inner build executor not entered after lock released")
 	}
 
 	cancel()
 	releaseOnce()
-
-	select {
-	case <-done:
-	case <-time.After(time.Second):
-		t.Fatal("execAsDocker did not return after inner was released and ctx was canceled")
-	}
+	<-done
 }
 
 func TestDockerActionImageTag(t *testing.T) {
@@ -520,6 +513,17 @@ func TestDockerActionImageTag(t *testing.T) {
 		dockerActionImageTag("owner/repo", "./", true),
 		dockerActionImageTag("owner/repo", "./sub", true),
 	)
+
+	workflow := &model.Workflow{Jobs: map[string]*model.Job{"job1": {}}}
+	job := newTestRC(workflow, nil)
+	step := &stepActionRemote{Step: &model.Step{}, RunContext: job}
+	image := job.dockerActionImage(t.Context(), step, "abc123", false)
+	assert.True(t, strings.HasPrefix(image, "act-abc123-dockeraction:latest-"))
+	assert.Equal(t, image, (&RunContext{Parent: job}).dockerActionImage(t.Context(), step, "abc123", false))
+	assert.NotEqual(t, image, job.dockerActionImage(t.Context(), &stepActionRemote{Step: &model.Step{}, RunContext: job}, "abc123", false))
+	assert.NotEqual(t, image, newTestRC(workflow, nil).dockerActionImage(t.Context(), step, "abc123", false))
+	job.dockerActionImage(common.WithDryrun(t.Context(), true), &stepActionRemote{Step: &model.Step{}, RunContext: job}, "abc123", false)
+	assert.Len(t, job.dockerActionImages, 2)
 }
 
 func TestExecAsDockerStageEntrypoint(t *testing.T) {

act/runner/cancellation_test.go

@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@ import (
 	"gitea.dev/actionslib/pkg/model"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+	"go.opentelemetry.io/otel/trace"
 	"go.yaml.in/yaml/v4"
 )
 
@@ -249,7 +250,8 @@ func TestPreStepFailureAffectsMainStepIfStatus(t *testing.T) {
 // SetJobError dereferences a nil map and panics. The post context must therefore be detached
 // from cancellation (so the steps run) yet still carry a usable error container.
 func TestPostStepsContextCancelledIsUsableForFailingStep(t *testing.T) {
-	cancelled, cancel := context.WithCancel(common.WithJobErrorContainer(context.Background()))
+	jobSpan := trace.NewSpanContext(trace.SpanContextConfig{TraceID: trace.TraceID{1}, SpanID: trace.SpanID{1}})
+	cancelled, cancel := context.WithCancel(trace.ContextWithSpanContext(common.WithJobErrorContainer(context.Background()), jobSpan))
 	cancel()
 	require.ErrorIs(t, cancelled.Err(), context.Canceled)
 
@@ -258,6 +260,7 @@ func TestPostStepsContextCancelledIsUsableForFailingStep(t *testing.T) {
 
 	// Detached from cancellation, so the post steps actually run.
 	require.NoError(t, postCtx.Err(), "post context must not be cancelled")
+	assert.Equal(t, jobSpan, trace.SpanContextFromContext(postCtx), "post steps must stay in the job's trace")
 
 	// A failing post step records its error instead of panicking.
 	require.NotPanics(t, func() {

act/runner/expression.go

@@ -13,7 +13,6 @@ import (
 	"reflect"
 	"regexp"
 	"strings"
-	"sync"
 	"time"
 
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/common"
@@ -27,29 +26,6 @@ import (
 	"go.yaml.in/yaml/v4"
 )
 
-// setStrategyContext leaves `max-parallel` unset when the job declares none, as GitHub does.
-func setStrategyContext(strategy map[string]any, jobStrategy *model.Strategy) {
-	strategy["fail-fast"] = jobStrategy.GetFailFast()
-	if limit, declared, err := jobStrategy.ParseMaxParallel(); declared && err == nil {
-		strategy["max-parallel"] = limit
-	}
-}
-
-// decodeDeferred decodes a whole-value `${{ }}` parked in a Raw* field, evaluating a clone since the node is shared across matrix combinations.
-func decodeDeferred[T any](ctx context.Context, eval *expressionEvaluator, name string, raw yaml.Node, out *T) error {
-	if raw.Kind != yaml.ScalarNode {
-		return nil
-	}
-	node := model.CloneYamlNode(raw)
-	if err := eval.EvaluateYamlNode(ctx, &node); err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("unable to evaluate %s: %w", name, err)
-	}
-	if err := node.Decode(out); err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("unable to decode %s: %w", name, err)
-	}
-	return nil
-}
-
 // NewExpressionEvaluator creates a new evaluator
 func (rc *RunContext) NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx context.Context) *ExpressionEvaluator {
 	return rc.NewExpressionEvaluatorWithEnv(ctx, rc.GetEnv())
@@ -59,23 +35,9 @@ func (rc *RunContext) NewExpressionEvaluatorWithEnv(ctx context.Context, env map
 	var workflowCallResult map[string]*model.WorkflowCallResult
 
 	// todo: cleanup EvaluationEnvironment creation
-	using := make(map[string]exprparser.Needs)
 	strategy := make(map[string]any)
 	if rc.Run != nil {
-		job := rc.Run.Job()
-		if job != nil && job.Strategy != nil {
-			setStrategyContext(strategy, job.Strategy)
-		}
-
-		jobs := rc.Run.Workflow.Jobs
-		jobNeeds := rc.Run.Job().Needs()
-
-		for _, needs := range jobNeeds {
-			using[needs] = exprparser.Needs{
-				Outputs: jobs[needs].Outputs,
-				Result:  jobs[needs].NeedsResult(),
-			}
-		}
+		strategy = exprparser.StrategyContext(rc.Run.Job().Strategy, rc.jobIndex, rc.jobTotal)
 
 		// only setup jobs context in case of workflow_call
 		// and existing expression evaluator (this means, jobs are at
@@ -83,7 +45,7 @@ func (rc *RunContext) NewExpressionEvaluatorWithEnv(ctx context.Context, env map
 		if rc.caller != nil && rc.ExprEval != nil {
 			workflowCallResult = map[string]*model.WorkflowCallResult{}
 
-			for jobName, job := range jobs {
+			for jobName, job := range rc.Run.Workflow.Jobs {
 				result := model.WorkflowCallResult{
 					Outputs: map[string]string{},
 				}
@@ -108,7 +70,7 @@ func (rc *RunContext) NewExpressionEvaluatorWithEnv(ctx context.Context, env map
 		Vars:      getWorkflowVars(ctx, rc),
 		Strategy:  strategy,
 		Matrix:    rc.Matrix,
-		Needs:     using,
+		Needs:     exprparser.NeedsContext(rc.Run),
 		Inputs:    inputs,
 		HashFiles: getHashFilesFunction(ctx, rc),
 	}
@@ -127,43 +89,26 @@ var hashfiles string
 
 // NewStepExpressionEvaluator creates a new evaluator with the `inputs` of the enclosing workflow or composite action
 func (rc *RunContext) NewStepExpressionEvaluator(ctx context.Context, step step) *ExpressionEvaluator {
-	return rc.newStepExpressionEvaluator(ctx, step, rc.actionInputs)
+	return rc.newStepExpressionEvaluator(ctx, step, rc.actionInputs, rc.getJobContext())
 }
 
 // NewActionInputsExpressionEvaluator creates a new evaluator with the step's own with: values as `inputs`
 func (rc *RunContext) NewActionInputsExpressionEvaluator(ctx context.Context, step step) *ExpressionEvaluator {
-	return rc.newStepExpressionEvaluator(ctx, step, inputsFromEnv(*step.getEnv()))
+	return rc.newStepExpressionEvaluator(ctx, step, inputsFromEnv(*step.getEnv()), rc.getJobContext())
 }
 
-func (rc *RunContext) newStepExpressionEvaluator(ctx context.Context, step step, stepInputs map[string]any) *ExpressionEvaluator {
+func (rc *RunContext) newStepExpressionEvaluator(ctx context.Context, step step, stepInputs map[string]any, jobContext *model.JobContext) *ExpressionEvaluator {
 	// todo: cleanup EvaluationEnvironment creation
-	job := rc.Run.Job()
-	strategy := make(map[string]any)
-	if job.Strategy != nil {
-		setStrategyContext(strategy, job.Strategy)
-	}
-
-	jobs := rc.Run.Workflow.Jobs
-	jobNeeds := rc.Run.Job().Needs()
-
-	using := make(map[string]exprparser.Needs)
-	for _, needs := range jobNeeds {
-		using[needs] = exprparser.Needs{
-			Outputs: jobs[needs].Outputs,
-			Result:  jobs[needs].NeedsResult(),
-		}
-	}
-
 	ee := &exprparser.EvaluationEnvironment{
 		Github:   step.getGithubContext(ctx),
 		Env:      *step.getEnv(),
-		Job:      rc.getJobContext(),
+		Job:      jobContext,
 		Steps:    rc.getStepsContext(),
 		Secrets:  getWorkflowSecrets(rc),
 		Vars:     getWorkflowVars(ctx, rc),
-		Strategy: strategy,
+		Strategy: exprparser.StrategyContext(rc.Run.Job().Strategy, rc.jobIndex, rc.jobTotal),
 		Matrix:   rc.Matrix,
-		Needs:    using,
+		Needs:    exprparser.NeedsContext(rc.Run),
 		// todo: should be unavailable
 		// but required to interpolate/evaluate the inputs in actions/composite
 		Inputs:    getEvaluatorInputs(rc, stepInputs, rc.getGithubContext(ctx)),
@@ -301,50 +246,44 @@ func inputsFromEnv(env map[string]string) map[string]any {
 }
 
 func getEvaluatorInputs(rc *RunContext, stepInputs map[string]any, ghc *model.GithubContext) map[string]any {
+	if stepInputs != nil { // an action's own inputs, which workflow inputs must not shadow
+		return maps.Clone(stepInputs)
+	}
 	inputs := map[string]any{}
 
-	maps.Copy(inputs, rc.workflowCallInputs)
-	maps.Copy(inputs, stepInputs)
-
-	if ghc.EventName == "workflow_dispatch" {
-		config := rc.Run.Workflow.WorkflowDispatchConfig()
-		if config != nil && config.Inputs != nil {
-			for k, v := range config.Inputs {
-				value := nestedMapLookup(ghc.Event, "inputs", k)
-				if value == nil {
-					value = v.Default
-				}
-				inputs[k] = coerceInputValue(value, v.Type)
-			}
-		}
+	// only a called workflow's job itself takes the inputs Gitea resolved,
+	// composite actions copy its Config but have their own `inputs`
+	if rc.Config.WorkflowCallInputs != nil && rc.Parent == nil {
+		maps.Copy(inputs, rc.Config.WorkflowCallInputs)
+		return inputs
 	}
 
-	if ghc.EventName == "workflow_call" {
-		config := rc.Run.Workflow.WorkflowCallConfig()
-		if config != nil && config.Inputs != nil {
-			for k, v := range config.Inputs {
-				value := nestedMapLookup(ghc.Event, "inputs", k)
-				if value == nil {
-					value = v.Default
+	maps.Copy(inputs, rc.workflowCallInputs)
+
+	switch ghc.EventName {
+	case "workflow_dispatch":
+		if config := rc.Run.Workflow.WorkflowDispatchConfig(); config != nil {
+			for name, input := range config.Inputs {
+				if input.Type == "number" {
+					input.Type = "string" // boolean is the only typed dispatch input, as in Gitea
 				}
-				inputs[k] = coerceInputValue(value, v.Type)
+				setEvaluatorInput(inputs, ghc, name, model.WorkflowCallInput{Type: input.Type, Default: input.Default})
 			}
 		}
+	case "workflow_call":
+		for name, input := range rc.Run.Workflow.WorkflowCallConfig().Inputs {
+			setEvaluatorInput(inputs, ghc, name, input)
+		}
 	}
 	return inputs
 }
 
-// coerceInputValue converts an input value to the type declared by the workflow.
-// The event payload carries natively typed JSON values on newer Gitea versions,
-// while defaults and older servers provide strings.
-func coerceInputValue(value any, inputType string) any {
-	if inputType != "boolean" {
-		return value
+func setEvaluatorInput(inputs map[string]any, ghc *model.GithubContext, name string, input model.WorkflowCallInput) {
+	value := model.NestedMapLookup(ghc.Event, "inputs", name)
+	if value == nil {
+		value, _ = input.DefaultValue()
 	}
-	if b, ok := value.(bool); ok {
-		return b
-	}
-	return value == "true"
+	inputs[name] = model.CoerceInputValue(value, input.Type)
 }
 
 // resolveWorkflowCall evaluates the caller's with: and secrets: once, as the server does before dispatching a called workflow.
@@ -352,40 +291,32 @@ func (rc *RunContext) resolveWorkflowCall(ctx context.Context) error {
 	if rc.caller == nil {
 		return nil
 	}
+	logger := common.Logger(ctx)
 	callerJob := rc.caller.runContext.Run.Job()
-	callerEval := rc.caller.runContext.ExprEval
-	callerWith := callerJob.With
-	if err := decodeDeferred(ctx, callerEval, "workflow inputs", callerJob.RawWith, &callerWith); err != nil {
+	callerEval := rc.caller.runContext.ExprEval.shared(ctx)
+	var callerWith map[string]any
+	if err := model.DecodeEvaluated("workflow inputs", callerJob.RawWith, callerEval.EvaluateYamlNode, &callerWith); err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
-	calleeEval := sync.OnceValue(func() *expressionEvaluator { return rc.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx) })
+	if !rc.Run.Workflow.IsWorkflowCall() {
+		logger.Warn("workflow_call key is not defined in the referenced workflow")
+	}
 	config := rc.Run.Workflow.WorkflowCallConfig()
-
-	rc.workflowCallInputs = make(map[string]any, len(config.Inputs))
-	for name, input := range config.Inputs {
-		value, eval, label := callerWith[name], callerEval, "input"
-		if value == nil {
-			value, eval, label = input.Default, calleeEval(), "the default of input"
-		}
-		if str, ok := value.(string); ok {
-			var err error
-			if value, err = eval.Interpolate(ctx, str); err != nil {
-				return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate %s %s: %w", label, name, err)
-			}
-		}
-		rc.workflowCallInputs[name] = coerceInputValue(value, input.Type)
+	var err error
+	if rc.workflowCallInputs, err = callerEval.ResolveWorkflowCallInputs(config, callerWith); err != nil {
+		logger.Warn(err)
 	}
 
+	if callerJob.InheritSecrets() {
+		rc.workflowCallSecrets = getWorkflowSecrets(rc.caller.runContext)
+		return nil
+	}
 	secrets := callerJob.Secrets()
-	if secrets == nil && callerJob.InheritSecrets() {
-		secrets = rc.caller.runContext.Config.Secrets
+	if err := config.ValidateSecrets(secrets); err != nil {
+		logger.Warn(err)
 	}
-	rc.workflowCallSecrets = make(map[string]string, len(secrets))
-	for k, v := range secrets {
-		var err error
-		if rc.workflowCallSecrets[k], err = callerEval.Interpolate(ctx, v); err != nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate secret %s: %w", k, err)
-		}
+	if rc.workflowCallSecrets, err = callerEval.EvaluateCallerSecrets(secrets); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate %w", err)
 	}
 	return nil
 }

act/runner/expression_test.go

@@ -294,6 +294,8 @@ on:
       name:
         type: string
         default: gitea
+      unset:
+        type: boolean
 `,
 		"workflow_dispatch": `
 on:
@@ -305,6 +307,8 @@ on:
       name:
         type: string
         default: gitea
+      unset:
+        type: boolean
 `,
 	}
 
@@ -356,6 +360,7 @@ on:
 				inputs := getEvaluatorInputs(rc, nil, ghc)
 				assert.Equal(t, table.flag, inputs["flag"])
 				assert.Equal(t, "gitea", inputs["name"])
+				assert.Equal(t, false, inputs["unset"])
 			})
 		}
 	}
@@ -375,11 +380,11 @@ jobs:
 		for _, value := range []string{"true", "false"} {
 			t.Run(value, func(t *testing.T) {
 				t.Parallel()
-				parent, err := (&runnerImpl{config: &Config{}}).newRunContext(t.Context(), &model.Run{Workflow: workflow, JobID: "call"}, map[string]any{"args": `{"flag":` + value + `,"name":"runner"}`})
+				parent, err := (&runnerImpl{config: &Config{}}).newRunContext(t.Context(), &model.Run{Workflow: workflow, JobID: "call"}, map[string]any{"args": `{"flag":` + value + `,"name":"${{ 'runner' }}"}`})
 				require.NoError(t, err)
 				child, err := (&runnerImpl{config: &Config{}, caller: &caller{runContext: parent}}).newRunContext(t.Context(), &model.Run{Workflow: workflow, JobID: "test"}, nil)
 				require.NoError(t, err)
-				assert.Equal(t, map[string]any{"flag": value == "true", "name": "runner"}, child.workflowCallInputs)
+				assert.Equal(t, map[string]any{"flag": value == "true", "name": "${{ 'runner' }}", "unset": false}, child.workflowCallInputs)
 				assert.Equal(t, rawWith, job.RawWith)
 				assert.Nil(t, job.With)
 			})
@@ -387,6 +392,93 @@ jobs:
 	})
 }
 
+func TestGetEvaluatorInputsResolvedByGitea(t *testing.T) {
+	wf, err := model.ReadWorkflow(strings.NewReader(`
+on:
+  workflow_call:
+    inputs:
+      name: {type: string, default: callee}
+  workflow_dispatch:
+    inputs:
+      name: {type: string}
+`))
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	config := &Config{Workdir: ".", WorkflowCallInputs: map[string]any{"name": "caller", "target": "dispatch"}}
+	ghc := &model.GithubContext{EventName: "workflow_dispatch", Event: map[string]any{"inputs": map[string]any{"name": "dispatch"}}}
+
+	// the event's own inputs must not override those Gitea resolved
+	job := &RunContext{Config: config, Run: &model.Run{JobID: "job1", Workflow: wf}}
+	assert.Equal(t, map[string]any{"name": "caller", "target": "dispatch"}, getEvaluatorInputs(job, nil, ghc))
+
+	composite := &RunContext{Config: config, Run: &model.Run{JobID: "job1", Workflow: &model.Workflow{}}, Parent: job}
+	assert.Equal(t, map[string]any{"arg": "x"}, getEvaluatorInputs(composite, map[string]any{"arg": "x"}, ghc))
+}
+
+func TestActionInputsShadowDispatchInputs(t *testing.T) {
+	wf, err := model.ReadWorkflow(strings.NewReader(`
+on:
+  workflow_dispatch:
+    inputs:
+      message: {type: string}
+jobs:
+  job1: {}
+`))
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	rc := newTestRC(wf, nil)
+	rc.Config.EventName = "workflow_dispatch"
+	rc.EventJSON = `{"inputs":{"message":"workflow"}}`
+	step := &stepActionRemote{RunContext: rc, env: map[string]string{"INPUT_MESSAGE": "step"}}
+	assert.Equal(t, "step", rc.NewActionInputsExpressionEvaluator(t.Context(), step).InterpolateName(t.Context(), "${{ inputs.message }}"))
+	assert.Equal(t, "workflow", rc.NewStepExpressionEvaluator(t.Context(), step).InterpolateName(t.Context(), "${{ inputs.message }}"))
+	enabled, err := isStepEnabled(t.Context(), "inputs.message == 'workflow'", step, stepStageMain)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.True(t, enabled)
+	step.Step, step.action = &model.Step{}, &model.Action{Inputs: map[string]model.Input{"fallback": {Default: "${{ inputs.message }}"}}}
+	env, err := evaluateCompositeInputAndEnv(t.Context(), rc, step)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Equal(t, "workflow", env["INPUT_FALLBACK"])
+}
+
+func TestResolveWorkflowCallToleratesMismatchesAndPassesInheritedSecretsVerbatim(t *testing.T) {
+	callerWorkflow, err := model.ReadWorkflow(strings.NewReader(`
+jobs:
+  call:
+    uses: ./reuse.yml
+    with: {flag: not-a-boolean}
+    secrets: {undeclared: "${{ secrets.token }}"}
+  inherit:
+    uses: ./reuse.yml
+    secrets: inherit
+`))
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	callee, err := model.ReadWorkflow(strings.NewReader(`
+on:
+  workflow_call:
+    inputs:
+      flag: {type: boolean, default: true}
+jobs:
+  test: {}
+`))
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	notCallable, err := model.ReadWorkflow(strings.NewReader("on: push\njobs:\n  test: {}\n"))
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	config := &Config{Secrets: map[string]string{"token": "${{ github.token }}"}}
+	resolve := func(callerJobID string, workflow *model.Workflow) *RunContext {
+		parent, err := (&runnerImpl{config: config}).newRunContext(t.Context(), &model.Run{Workflow: callerWorkflow, JobID: callerJobID}, nil)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		child, err := (&runnerImpl{config: config, caller: &caller{runContext: parent}}).newRunContext(t.Context(), &model.Run{Workflow: workflow, JobID: "test"}, nil)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		return child
+	}
+
+	called := resolve("call", callee)
+	assert.Equal(t, map[string]any{"flag": true}, called.workflowCallInputs)
+	assert.Equal(t, map[string]string{"undeclared": "${{ github.token }}"}, called.workflowCallSecrets)
+	inherited := resolve("inherit", notCallable)
+	assert.Empty(t, inherited.workflowCallInputs)
+	assert.Equal(t, config.Secrets, inherited.workflowCallSecrets)
+}
+
 func TestJobNameMasksSecrets(t *testing.T) {
 	workflow, err := model.ReadWorkflow(strings.NewReader(`
 jobs:

act/runner/helpers_test.go

@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ package runner
 
 import (
 	"context"
+	"os"
 	"os/exec"
 	"runtime"
 	"testing"
@@ -40,6 +41,16 @@ func requireDocker(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+func requireDockerSharingFiles(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Helper()
+	requireDocker(t)
+	for _, marker := range []string{"/.dockerenv", "/run/.containerenv"} {
+		if _, err := os.Stat(marker); err == nil {
+			t.Skip("skipping: inside a container, the docker daemon cannot bind-mount this process's files")
+		}
+	}
+}
+
 // requireHostTools skips the test unless every named executable is on PATH. Used by the
 // self-hosted (host environment) suite, which runs steps directly on the host.
 func requireHostTools(t *testing.T, tools ...string) {

act/runner/job_executor.go

@@ -13,12 +13,12 @@ import (
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
+	"maps"
 	"net/http"
 	"path"
 	"slices"
 	"strconv"
 	"strings"
-	"sync"
 	"time"
 	"unicode"
 
@@ -259,6 +259,7 @@ func newJobExecutor(info jobInfo, sf stepFactory, rc *RunContext) common.Executo
 			logger.Errorf("##[error]%s", EscapeCommandData("Error while stop job container: "+err.Error()))
 		}
 		setJobResult(ctx, info, rc, jobError == nil)
+		rc.removeDockerActionImages(ctx)
 
 		return err
 	})
@@ -282,8 +283,8 @@ func newJobExecutor(info jobInfo, sf stepFactory, rc *RunContext) common.Executo
 // finished main-pipeline context. Cleanup has to run even when the run was interrupted, so the
 // returned context always carries a fresh bounded deadline and is never itself cancelled.
 //
-//   - context.Canceled (server cancel): detach from the cancelled context via a fresh root so
-//     the post steps can run.
+//   - context.Canceled (server cancel): detach with WithoutCancel under a fresh job-error
+//     container, so a failing post step cannot turn the cancellation into a failure.
 //   - context.DeadlineExceeded (job timeout): detach the deadline with WithoutCancel, which
 //     keeps the original values — including the job-error container — so the timeout failure and
 //     any post-step error are preserved and the job is still reported as failed.
@@ -291,10 +292,7 @@ func newJobExecutor(info jobInfo, sf stepFactory, rc *RunContext) common.Executo
 func postStepsContext(ctx context.Context) (context.Context, context.CancelFunc) {
 	switch ctx.Err() {
 	case context.Canceled:
-		// The cancelled context is abandoned for a fresh root, which drops the job-error
-		// container installed at the job root. Re-attach a fresh one so a failing post step
-		// records its error via SetJobError instead of panicking on a nil container.
-		return context.WithTimeout(common.WithJobErrorContainer(common.WithLogger(context.Background(), common.Logger(ctx))), 5*time.Minute)
+		return context.WithTimeout(common.WithJobErrorContainer(context.WithoutCancel(ctx)), 5*time.Minute)
 	case context.DeadlineExceeded:
 		return context.WithTimeout(context.WithoutCancel(ctx), 5*time.Minute)
 	default:
@@ -414,49 +412,53 @@ func setJobResult(ctx context.Context, info jobInfo, rc *RunContext, success boo
 	logger.WithField("jobResult", jobResult).Infof("Job %s", jobResultMessage)
 }
 
-// evaluateJobEnvAndDefaults resolves the job's env and defaults.run once, as GitHub does at job setup.
-func evaluateJobEnvAndDefaults(ctx context.Context, rc *RunContext) error {
-	rc.ExprEval = rc.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx)
+// evaluateJobEnv returns the workflow and job env evaluated, as far as it got on error, leaving rc.Env raw.
+func evaluateJobEnv(ctx context.Context, rc *RunContext) (map[string]string, error) {
+	env := rc.GetEnv()
+	evaluated := maps.Clone(env)
+	evaluator := rc.NewExpressionEvaluatorWithEnv(ctx, evaluated)
 	var workflowEnv map[string]string
-	if err := decodeDeferred(ctx, rc.ExprEval, "workflow env", rc.Run.Workflow.RawEnv, &workflowEnv); err != nil {
-		return err
-	}
-	if workflowEnv != nil {
-		rc.Env = mergeMaps(workflowEnv, rc.GetEnv())
-		rc.ExprEval = rc.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx)
-	}
-	var err error
-	for k, v := range rc.GetEnv() {
-		if rc.Env[k], err = rc.ExprEval.Interpolate(ctx, v); err != nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate env %s: %w", k, err)
+	if rc.Run.Workflow.Env == nil {
+		if err := model.DecodeEvaluated("workflow env", rc.Run.Workflow.RawEnv, evaluator.shared(ctx).EvaluateYamlNode, &workflowEnv); err != nil {
+			return evaluated, err
 		}
 	}
-	defaults := rc.Run.Job().Defaults.Run
-	if rc.jobRunDefaults.Shell, err = rc.ExprEval.Interpolate(ctx, defaults.Shell); err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate defaults.run.shell: %w", err)
+	if workflowEnv != nil {
+		evaluated = mergeMaps(workflowEnv, env)
+		evaluator = rc.NewExpressionEvaluatorWithEnv(ctx, evaluated)
 	}
-	if rc.jobRunDefaults.WorkingDirectory, err = rc.ExprEval.Interpolate(ctx, defaults.WorkingDirectory); err != nil {
-		return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate defaults.run.working-directory: %w", err)
+	var err error
+	for k, v := range env {
+		if evaluated[k], err = evaluator.Interpolate(ctx, v); err != nil {
+			return evaluated, fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate env %s: %w", k, err)
+		}
 	}
-	return nil
+	return evaluated, nil
+}
+
+// evaluateJobEnvAndDefaults resolves the job's env, defaults.run and container env once, as GitHub does at job setup.
+func evaluateJobEnvAndDefaults(ctx context.Context, rc *RunContext) error {
+	env, err := evaluateJobEnv(ctx, rc)
+	rc.Env = env
+	rc.ExprEval = rc.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	var defaults model.Defaults
+	if err := model.DecodeEvaluated("defaults", rc.Run.Job().RawDefaults, rc.ExprEval.shared(ctx).EvaluateYamlNode, &defaults); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	rc.jobRunDefaults = defaults.Run
+	return model.DecodeEvaluated("container env", rc.containerEnv, rc.ExprEval.shared(ctx).EvaluateYamlNode, &rc.containerSpec.Env)
 }
 
 func setJobOutputs(ctx context.Context, rc *RunContext) error {
 	if rc.caller == nil {
 		return nil
 	}
-	outputs := rc.Run.Workflow.WorkflowCallConfig().Outputs
-	callerOutputs := make(map[string]string, len(outputs))
-	ee := sync.OnceValue(func() *expressionEvaluator { return rc.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx) })
-	for k, v := range outputs {
-		value := v.Value
-		for range 2 { // two passes, the value resolves through a job output
-			var err error
-			if value, err = ee().Interpolate(ctx, value); err != nil {
-				return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate workflow output %s: %w", k, err)
-			}
-		}
-		callerOutputs[k] = value
+	callerOutputs, err := rc.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx).shared(ctx).EvaluateWorkflowCallOutputs(rc.Run.Workflow.WorkflowCallConfig())
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate workflow %w", err)
 	}
 
 	// Matrix combinations of a reusable-workflow caller share the caller's *model.Job;
@@ -474,7 +476,7 @@ func applyJobTimeout(ctx context.Context, rc *RunContext, job *model.Job) (conte
 	if err != nil {
 		common.Logger(ctx).Errorf("An error occurred when attempting to determine the job timeout: %s", err)
 	} else if timeout != "" {
-		if timeoutMinutes, err := strconv.ParseInt(timeout, 10, 64); err == nil {
+		if timeoutMinutes, err := strconv.ParseInt(timeout, 10, 64); err == nil && timeoutMinutes > 0 {
 			return context.WithTimeout(ctx, time.Duration(timeoutMinutes)*time.Minute)
 		}
 	}

act/runner/job_executor_test.go

@@ -479,8 +479,7 @@ func TestNewJobExecutor(t *testing.T) {
 				Config: &Config{},
 			}
 			if tt.output != "" {
-				rc.Run.Job().Outputs = map[string]string{"bad": tt.output}
-				rc.outputTemplate = map[string]string{"bad": tt.output}
+				require.NoError(t, rc.Run.Job().RawOutputs.Encode(map[string]string{"bad": tt.output}))
 			}
 			rc.ExprEval = rc.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx)
 			executorOrder := make([]string, 0)
@@ -1082,6 +1081,7 @@ func TestApplyJobTimeout(t *testing.T) {
 	}{
 		{"empty", "runs-on: ubuntu-latest", false},
 		{"integer", "timeout-minutes: 5\nruns-on: ubuntu-latest", true},
+		{"zero ignored", "timeout-minutes: 0\nruns-on: ubuntu-latest", false},
 		{"non-numeric ignored", "timeout-minutes: abc\nruns-on: ubuntu-latest", false},
 	}
 	for _, tc := range cases {

act/runner/job_hooks.go

@@ -7,7 +7,6 @@ import (
 	"cmp"
 	"context"
 	"fmt"
-	"maps"
 	"path"
 	"strings"
 
@@ -51,11 +50,7 @@ func (rc *RunContext) runJobHook(ctx context.Context, hookPath, name string) err
 		rawLogger.Infof("shell: %s", shell)
 	}
 
-	env := map[string]string{}
-	if jobContainer := rc.Run.Job().Container(); jobContainer != nil {
-		maps.Copy(env, jobContainer.Env)
-	}
-	maps.Copy(env, rc.GetEnv())
+	env := mergeMaps(rc.containerSpec.Env, rc.GetEnv())
 	rc.withGithubEnv(ctx, rc.getGithubContext(ctx), env)
 	rc.ApplyExtraPath(ctx, &env)
 

act/runner/reusable_workflow.go

@@ -9,7 +9,6 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"net/url"
 	"path"
-	"path/filepath"
 	"regexp"
 	"strings"
 
@@ -20,28 +19,22 @@ import (
 )
 
 func newLocalReusableWorkflowExecutor(rc *RunContext) common.Executor {
-	if !rc.Config.NoSkipCheckout {
-		fullPath := rc.Run.Job().Uses
-
-		fileName := path.Base(fullPath)
-		workflowDir := strings.TrimSuffix(fullPath, path.Join("/", fileName))
-		workflowDir = strings.TrimPrefix(workflowDir, "./")
-
-		return common.NewPipelineExecutor(
-			// resolve the local workflow against the workspace root, not the process
-			// working directory, so it is found regardless of where the runner is invoked
-			newReusableWorkflowExecutor(rc, filepath.Join(rc.Config.Workdir, workflowDir), fileName),
-		)
+	localWorkflow, err := model.ParseReusableWorkflowUses(rc.Run.Job().Uses)
+	if err != nil {
+		return common.NewErrorExecutor(err)
 	}
 
-	// ./.gitea/workflows/wf.yml -> .gitea/workflows/wf.yml
-	trimmedUses := strings.TrimPrefix(rc.Run.Job().Uses, "./")
-	// uses string format is {owner}/{repo}/.{git_platform}/workflows/{filename}@{ref}
-	uses := fmt.Sprintf("%s/%s@%s", rc.Config.PresetGitHubContext.Repository, trimmedUses, rc.Config.PresetGitHubContext.Sha)
+	if !rc.Config.NoSkipCheckout {
+		// resolve the local workflow against the workspace root, not the process
+		// working directory, so it is found regardless of where the runner is invoked
+		return newReusableWorkflowExecutor(rc, rc.Config.Workdir, localWorkflow.Path)
+	}
 
-	remoteReusableWorkflow := newRemoteReusableWorkflowWithPlat(rc.Config.GitHubInstance, uses)
-	if remoteReusableWorkflow == nil {
-		return common.NewErrorExecutor(fmt.Errorf("expected format {owner}/{repo}/.{git_platform}/workflows/{filename}@{ref}. Actual '%s' Input string was not in a correct format", uses))
+	uses := fmt.Sprintf("%s/%s@%s", rc.Config.PresetGitHubContext.Repository, localWorkflow.Path, rc.Config.PresetGitHubContext.Sha)
+
+	remoteReusableWorkflow, err := newRemoteReusableWorkflow(rc.Config.GitHubInstance, uses)
+	if err != nil {
+		return common.NewErrorExecutor(err)
 	}
 
 	workflowDir := fmt.Sprintf("%s/%s", rc.ActionCacheDir(), safeFilename(uses))
@@ -51,37 +44,27 @@ func newLocalReusableWorkflowExecutor(rc *RunContext) common.Executor {
 
 	return common.NewPipelineExecutor(
 		cloneRemoteReusableWorkflow(rc, remoteReusableWorkflow.CloneURL(), remoteReusableWorkflow.Ref, workflowDir, token),
-		newReusableWorkflowExecutor(rc, workflowDir, remoteReusableWorkflow.FilePath()),
+		newReusableWorkflowExecutor(rc, workflowDir, remoteReusableWorkflow.Path),
 	)
 }
 
 func newRemoteReusableWorkflowExecutor(rc *RunContext) common.Executor {
-	uses := rc.Run.Job().Uses
-
-	var remoteReusableWorkflow *remoteReusableWorkflow
-	if strings.HasPrefix(uses, "http://") || strings.HasPrefix(uses, "https://") {
-		remoteReusableWorkflow = newRemoteReusableWorkflowFromAbsoluteURL(uses)
-		if remoteReusableWorkflow == nil {
-			return common.NewErrorExecutor(fmt.Errorf("expected format http(s)://{domain}/{owner}/{repo}/.{git_platform}/workflows/{filename}@{ref}. Actual '%s' Input string was not in a correct format", uses))
-		}
-	} else {
-		remoteReusableWorkflow = newRemoteReusableWorkflowWithPlat(rc.Config.GitHubInstance, uses)
-		if remoteReusableWorkflow == nil {
-			return common.NewErrorExecutor(fmt.Errorf("expected format {owner}/{repo}/.{git_platform}/workflows/{filename}@{ref}. Actual '%s' Input string was not in a correct format", uses))
-		}
+	remoteReusableWorkflow, err := newRemoteReusableWorkflow(rc.Config.GitHubInstance, rc.Run.Job().Uses)
+	if err != nil {
+		return common.NewErrorExecutor(err)
 	}
 
 	// uses with safe filename makes the target directory look something like this {owner}-{repo}-.github-workflows-{filename}@{ref}
 	// instead we will just use {owner}-{repo}@{ref} as our target directory. This should also improve performance when we are using
 	// multiple reusable workflows from the same repository and ref since for each workflow we won't have to clone it again
-	filename := fmt.Sprintf("%s/%s@%s", remoteReusableWorkflow.Org, remoteReusableWorkflow.Repo, remoteReusableWorkflow.Ref)
+	filename := fmt.Sprintf("%s/%s@%s", remoteReusableWorkflow.Owner, remoteReusableWorkflow.Repo, remoteReusableWorkflow.Ref)
 	workflowDir := fmt.Sprintf("%s/%s", rc.ActionCacheDir(), safeFilename(filename))
 
 	token := getGitCloneToken(rc.Config, remoteReusableWorkflow.CloneURL())
 
 	return common.NewPipelineExecutor(
 		cloneRemoteReusableWorkflow(rc, remoteReusableWorkflow.CloneURL(), remoteReusableWorkflow.Ref, workflowDir, token),
-		newReusableWorkflowExecutor(rc, workflowDir, remoteReusableWorkflow.FilePath()),
+		newReusableWorkflowExecutor(rc, workflowDir, remoteReusableWorkflow.Path),
 	)
 }
 
@@ -90,7 +73,7 @@ func newRemoteReusableWorkflowExecutor(rc *RunContext) common.Executor {
 //
 // Callers must not change remoteReusableWorkflow.URL, because:
 //  1. Gitea doesn't support specifying GithubContext.ServerURL by the GITHUB_SERVER_URL env
-//  2. Gitea has already full URL with rc.Config.GitHubInstance when calling newRemoteReusableWorkflowWithPlat
+//  2. Gitea has already full URL with rc.Config.GitHubInstance when calling newRemoteReusableWorkflow
 //
 // remoteReusableWorkflow.URL = rc.getGithubContext(ctx).ServerURL
 func cloneRemoteReusableWorkflow(rc *RunContext, cloneURL, ref, targetDirectory, token string) common.Executor {
@@ -153,64 +136,34 @@ func newReusableWorkflowRunner(rc *RunContext) (*runnerImpl, error) {
 }
 
 type remoteReusableWorkflow struct {
-	URL      string
-	Org      string
-	Repo     string
-	Filename string
-	Ref      string
-
-	GitPlatform string
+	*model.ReusableWorkflowUses
+	URL string
 }
 
 func (r *remoteReusableWorkflow) CloneURL() string {
 	// In Gitea, r.URL always has the protocol prefix, we don't need to add extra prefix in this case.
 	if strings.HasPrefix(r.URL, "http://") || strings.HasPrefix(r.URL, "https://") {
-		return fmt.Sprintf("%s/%s/%s", r.URL, r.Org, r.Repo)
+		return fmt.Sprintf("%s/%s/%s", r.URL, r.Owner, r.Repo)
 	}
-	return fmt.Sprintf("https://%s/%s/%s", r.URL, r.Org, r.Repo)
+	return fmt.Sprintf("https://%s/%s/%s", r.URL, r.Owner, r.Repo)
 }
 
-func (r *remoteReusableWorkflow) FilePath() string {
-	return fmt.Sprintf("./.%s/workflows/%s", r.GitPlatform, r.Filename)
-}
+var absoluteReusableWorkflowURLRegex = regexp.MustCompile(`^(https?://.*)/([^/]+/[^/]+/\.[^/]+/workflows/[^@]+@.*)$`)
 
 // For Gitea
-// newRemoteReusableWorkflowWithPlat create a `remoteReusableWorkflow`
-// workflows from `.gitea/workflows` and `.github/workflows` are supported
-func newRemoteReusableWorkflowWithPlat(url, uses string) *remoteReusableWorkflow {
-	// GitHub docs:
-	// https://docs.github.com/en/actions/using-workflows/workflow-syntax-for-github-actions#jobsjob_iduses
-	r := regexp.MustCompile(`^([^/]+)/([^/]+)/\.([^/]+)/workflows/([^@]+)@(.*)$`)
-	matches := r.FindStringSubmatch(uses)
-	if len(matches) != 6 {
-		return nil
+// newRemoteReusableWorkflow parses a remote `uses`, an absolute URL up to `{owner}/{repo}/.{git_platform}/workflows/` replaces baseURL
+func newRemoteReusableWorkflow(baseURL, uses string) (*remoteReusableWorkflow, error) {
+	if matches := absoluteReusableWorkflowURLRegex.FindStringSubmatch(uses); matches != nil {
+		baseURL, uses = matches[1], matches[2]
 	}
-	return &remoteReusableWorkflow{
-		Org:         matches[1],
-		Repo:        matches[2],
-		GitPlatform: matches[3],
-		Filename:    matches[4],
-		Ref:         matches[5],
-		URL:         url,
+	parsed, err := model.ParseReusableWorkflowUses(uses)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
 	}
-}
-
-// For Gitea
-// newRemoteReusableWorkflowWithPlat create a `remoteReusableWorkflow` from an absolute url
-func newRemoteReusableWorkflowFromAbsoluteURL(uses string) *remoteReusableWorkflow {
-	r := regexp.MustCompile(`^(https?://.*)/([^/]+)/([^/]+)/\.([^/]+)/workflows/([^@]+)@(.*)$`)
-	matches := r.FindStringSubmatch(uses)
-	if len(matches) != 7 {
-		return nil
-	}
-	return &remoteReusableWorkflow{
-		URL:         matches[1],
-		Org:         matches[2],
-		Repo:        matches[3],
-		GitPlatform: matches[4],
-		Filename:    matches[5],
-		Ref:         matches[6],
+	if parsed.IsLocal() {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("expected a remote reusable workflow, got %q", uses)
 	}
+	return &remoteReusableWorkflow{ReusableWorkflowUses: parsed, URL: baseURL}, nil
 }
 
 // For Gitea

act/runner/reusable_workflow_test.go

@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ package runner
 
 import (
 	"context"
+	"io/fs"
 	"os"
 	"os/exec"
 	"path/filepath"
@@ -106,6 +107,22 @@ func TestNewReusableWorkflowExecutorHoldsCloneLock(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+func TestNewLocalReusableWorkflowExecutorFindsSameRepositoryPaths(t *testing.T) {
+	workdir := t.TempDir()
+	require.NoError(t, os.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(workdir, ".gitea", "workflows"), 0o755))
+	require.NoError(t, os.WriteFile(filepath.Join(workdir, ".gitea", "workflows", "reusable.yml"), []byte(":"), 0o644))
+
+	for _, uses := range []string{"./.gitea/workflows/reusable.yml", "$/.gitea/workflows/reusable.yml"} {
+		rc := &RunContext{
+			Config: &Config{Workdir: workdir},
+			Run:    &model.Run{JobID: "job", Workflow: &model.Workflow{Jobs: map[string]*model.Job{"job": {Uses: uses}}}},
+		}
+		err := newLocalReusableWorkflowExecutor(rc)(t.Context())
+		require.Error(t, err)
+		require.NotErrorIs(t, err, fs.ErrNotExist)
+	}
+}
+
 func TestGetGitCloneTokenWithSchemalessGiteaInstance(t *testing.T) {
 	conf := &Config{
 		GitHubInstance: "gitea.example.net",

act/runner/run_context.go

@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@ package runner
 import (
 	"archive/tar"
 	"bufio"
+	"cmp"
 	"context"
 	"crypto/rand"
 	"crypto/sha256"
@@ -18,11 +19,11 @@ import (
 	maps0 "maps"
 	"net"
 	"os"
-	"path"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"regexp"
 	"runtime"
 	"slices"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"sync"
 	"time"
@@ -36,8 +37,10 @@ import (
 	"gitea.dev/actionslib/pkg/model"
 	"github.com/docker/cli/cli/compose/loader"
 	"github.com/docker/go-connections/nat"
+	"github.com/kballard/go-shellquote"
 	"github.com/moby/moby/api/types/mount"
 	"github.com/opencontainers/selinux/go-selinux"
+	"go.yaml.in/yaml/v4"
 	"golang.org/x/sync/errgroup"
 	"golang.org/x/text/encoding/unicode"
 	"golang.org/x/text/transform"
@@ -63,6 +66,9 @@ type RunContext struct {
 	ExprEval            *expressionEvaluator
 	JobContainer        container.ExecutionsEnvironment
 	serviceContainers   []*serviceContainer
+	kubernetes          bool
+	containerSpec       model.ContainerSpec // container:, resolved once with platformImage
+	containerEnv        yaml.Node           // container.env of the kept containerSpec, decoded once the job env resolves
 	JobName             string
 	ActionPath          string
 	Parent              *RunContext
@@ -75,6 +81,11 @@ type RunContext struct {
 	workflowCallSecrets map[string]string // the caller's secrets:, resolved once by resolveWorkflowCall
 	jobRunDefaults      model.RunDefaults // defaults.run, resolved once at job setup as GitHub does
 	platformImage       string            // container.image or the runs-on pick, resolved once by isEnabled
+	jobIndex, jobTotal  int               // strategy.job-index and job-total, total 0 when unknown
+
+	jobEnv             map[string]string      // workflow and job env as evaluated for the container and service specs
+	dockerActionImages map[*model.Step]string // Dockerfile action images built for this job, removed when it ends
+
 	// summaryFileInitialized tracks which per-step summary files (workflow/step-summary-N.md)
 	// have already been created on the JobContainer. The runner sets up file-command files
 	// via JobContainer.Copy at the start of every phase, which truncates them — fine for
@@ -83,10 +94,6 @@ type RunContext struct {
 	// so writes from later phases and from composite sub-steps append to the same file.
 	// Only populated on the top-level RunContext; child RCs walk Parent via topLevelRunContext.
 	summaryFileInitialized map[int]bool
-	// outputTemplate is this combination's pristine snapshot of the job's output expressions,
-	// captured before execution so each matrix combo interpolates from the originals rather
-	// than from a sibling's already-resolved values written into the shared Job.Outputs.
-	outputTemplate map[string]string
 	// jobCancelled records that this job's run was cancelled (context.Canceled). It makes
 	// getJobContext report the "cancelled" status so cancelled()/always() evaluate the way
 	// GitHub Actions does, letting cleanup and always() steps run while normal steps skip.
@@ -114,6 +121,7 @@ type serviceContainer struct {
 	name       string
 	image      string
 	container  container.ExecutionsEnvironment
+	created    bool
 	logsDumped bool
 	info       *container.Info // last poll, the source of the `job.services` entry
 }
@@ -252,6 +260,9 @@ const sharedToolCacheVolume = "act-toolcache" // mounted only when the tool cach
 func (rc *RunContext) validVolumes() []string {
 	name := rc.jobContainerName()
 	volumes := slices.Clone(rc.Config.ValidVolumes)
+	if hostEnv, ok := rc.JobContainer.(*container.HostEnvironment); ok {
+		volumes = append(volumes, hostEnv.Path, hostEnv.GetActPath())
+	}
 	if rc.Config.SharedToolCache {
 		volumes = append(volumes, sharedToolCacheVolume)
 	}
@@ -335,26 +346,12 @@ func splitVolumes(specs []string) ([]string, map[string]string, map[string]bool)
 }
 
 // Returns the binds and mounts for the container, resolving paths as appopriate
-func (rc *RunContext) GetBindsAndMounts() ([]string, map[string]string, error) {
+func (rc *RunContext) GetBindsAndMounts(ctx context.Context) ([]string, map[string]string) {
 	name := rc.jobContainerName()
 	ext := container.LinuxContainerEnvironmentExtensions{}
 
-	var volumes []string
-	if job := rc.Run.Job(); job != nil {
-		if container := job.Container(); container != nil {
-			for _, v := range container.Volumes {
-				if rc.ExprEval != nil {
-					var err error
-					if v, err = rc.ExprEval.Interpolate(context.Background(), v); err != nil {
-						return nil, nil, fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate container.volumes: %w", err)
-					}
-				}
-				volumes = append(volumes, v)
-			}
-		}
-	}
 	// the runner's own mounts below yield to the targets the job claims
-	binds, mounts, claimed := splitVolumes(volumes)
+	binds, mounts, claimed := splitVolumes(container.SanitizeBinds(ctx, rc.validVolumes(), rc.containerSpec.Volumes))
 
 	if rc.containerDaemonSocket() != "-" && !claimed["/var/run/docker.sock"] {
 		binds = append(binds, rc.jobDockerSocket()+":/var/run/docker.sock")
@@ -364,6 +361,9 @@ func (rc *RunContext) GetBindsAndMounts() ([]string, map[string]string, error) {
 			mounts[sharedToolCacheVolume] = toolCache
 		}
 	}
+	if hostEnv, ok := rc.JobContainer.(*container.HostEnvironment); ok {
+		binds = append(binds, hostEnv.Path+":"+hostEnv.Path, hostEnv.GetActPath()+":"+hostEnv.GetActPath())
+	}
 	mounts[name+"-env"] = ext.GetActPath() // runner-internal, never overridable
 
 	if workdir := ext.ToContainerPath(rc.Config.Workdir); !claimed[workdir] {
@@ -386,7 +386,7 @@ func (rc *RunContext) GetBindsAndMounts() ([]string, map[string]string, error) {
 		}
 	}
 
-	return binds, mounts, nil
+	return binds, mounts
 }
 
 func (rc *RunContext) startHostEnvironment() common.Executor {
@@ -430,11 +430,7 @@ func (rc *RunContext) startHostEnvironment() common.Executor {
 			AllocatePTY: rc.Config.AllocatePTY,
 		}
 		rc.cleanUpJobContainer = rc.JobContainer.Remove()
-		for k, v := range rc.getRunnerContext(ctx) {
-			if v, ok := v.(string); ok {
-				rc.Env["RUNNER_"+strings.ToUpper(k)] = v
-			}
-		}
+		rc.setRunnerContextEnv(ctx)
 		for _, env := range os.Environ() {
 			if k, v, ok := strings.Cut(env, "="); ok {
 				// don't override
@@ -444,16 +440,70 @@ func (rc *RunContext) startHostEnvironment() common.Executor {
 			}
 		}
 
+		return rc.copyWorkflowFiles()(ctx)
+	}
+}
+
+func (rc *RunContext) setRunnerContextEnv(ctx context.Context) {
+	for k, v := range rc.getRunnerContext(ctx) {
+		if v, ok := v.(string); ok {
+			rc.Env["RUNNER_"+strings.ToUpper(k)] = v
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+var errKubernetesDocker = errors.New("docker actions and docker:// steps are not supported on Kubernetes")
+
+func (rc *RunContext) startKubernetesPod() common.Executor {
+	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
+		if rc.containerSpec.Options != "" || len(rc.containerSpec.Volumes) > 0 || rc.containerSpec.Credentials != nil {
+			return errors.New("container options, volumes and credentials are not supported on Kubernetes")
+		}
+		var options container.KubernetesOptions
+		if rc.Config.KubernetesPicker != nil {
+			options = rc.Config.KubernetesPicker(rc.runsOnPlatformNames(ctx))
+		}
+		options.MaxLifetime, options.ForcePull = rc.Config.ContainerMaxLifetime, rc.Config.ForcePull
+		pod, err := container.NewKubernetesPod(options)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		services, err := rc.jobServices(ctx, "")
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		for _, serviceID := range slices.Sorted(maps0.Keys(services)) {
+			input := services[serviceID]
+			if input.Username != "" || len(input.Binds) > 0 || len(input.Mounts) > 0 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("service %s: volumes and credentials are not supported on Kubernetes", serviceID)
+			}
+			rc.serviceContainers = append(rc.serviceContainers, &serviceContainer{name: serviceID, image: input.Image, container: pod.ServiceContainer(serviceID, input)})
+		}
+
+		logWriter := rc.commandLogWriter(ctx)
+		rc.JobContainer = pod.JobContainer(&container.NewContainerInput{
+			Entrypoint: []string{"tail", "-f", "/dev/null"},
+			WorkingDir: (&container.LinuxContainerEnvironmentExtensions{}).ToContainerPath(rc.Config.Workdir),
+			Image:      rc.platformImage,
+			Name:       rc.jobContainerName(),
+			Env:        []string{"LANG=C.UTF-8"},
+			Stdout:     logWriter,
+			Stderr:     logWriter,
+		})
+		rc.cleanUpJobContainer = func(ctx context.Context) error {
+			rc.printServiceLogs(ctx)
+			return rc.JobContainer.Remove()(ctx)
+		}
+		defer printStartJobContainerGroup(ctx, rc.platformImage, rc.jobContainerName(), "")()
 		return common.NewPipelineExecutor(
-			rc.JobContainer.Copy(rc.JobContainer.GetActPath()+"/", &container.FileEntry{
-				Name: "workflow/event.json",
-				Mode: 0o644,
-				Body: rc.EventJSON,
-			}, &container.FileEntry{
-				Name: "workflow/envs.txt",
-				Mode: 0o666,
-				Body: "",
-			}),
+			rc.JobContainer.Create(nil, nil),
+			rc.startServiceContainers(),
+			rc.JobContainer.Start(false),
+			func(ctx context.Context) error { rc.setRunnerContextEnv(ctx); return nil },
+			rc.captureJobContainerInfo(),
+			rc.copyWorkflowFiles(),
+			rc.reportUnstartedServices(),
+			rc.waitForServiceContainers(),
 		)(ctx)
 	}
 }
@@ -483,11 +533,10 @@ func WithJobVolumeCleanup(ctx context.Context, deferCleanup func(common.Executor
 func (rc *RunContext) startJobContainer() common.Executor {
 	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
 		rc.deferVolumeCleanup, _ = ctx.Value(jobVolumeCleanupKey{}).(func(common.Executor))
-		logger := common.Logger(ctx)
 		image := rc.platformImage
 		logWriter := rc.commandLogWriter(ctx)
 
-		username, password, err := rc.handleCredentials(ctx)
+		username, password, err := registryCredentials(rc.containerSpec.Credentials, "container.")
 		if err != nil {
 			return fmt.Errorf("failed to handle credentials: %s", err)
 		}
@@ -496,6 +545,7 @@ func (rc *RunContext) startJobContainer() common.Executor {
 		// For gitea, to support --volumes-from <container_name_or_id> in options.
 		// We need to set the container name to the environment variable.
 		rc.Env["JOB_CONTAINER_NAME"] = name
+		delete(rc.jobEnv, "JOB_CONTAINER_NAME") // the runtime name wins over a workflow env of the same name
 
 		envList := make([]string, 0)
 
@@ -508,109 +558,22 @@ func (rc *RunContext) startJobContainer() common.Executor {
 		networkName, createAndDeleteNetwork := rc.networkNameForGitea()
 		rc.cleanUpJobContainer = rc.cleanupJobResources(networkName, createAndDeleteNetwork, false)
 
-		services := rc.Run.Job().Services
-		if err := decodeDeferred(ctx, rc.ExprEval, "job services", rc.Run.Job().RawServices, &services); err != nil {
+		services, err := rc.jobServices(ctx, networkName)
+		if err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
-		for serviceID, spec := range services {
-			// GitHub compatibility: skip services whose image evaluates to an
-			// empty string, enabling conditional services via expressions
-			serviceImage, err := rc.ExprEval.Interpolate(ctx, spec.Image)
-			if err != nil {
-				return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate service %s image: %w", serviceID, err)
-			}
-			if serviceImage == "" {
-				logger.Infof("The service '%s' will not be started because the container definition has an empty image.", serviceID)
-				continue
-			}
-			// interpolate env
-			interpolatedEnvs := make(map[string]string, len(spec.Env)+len(rc.Config.ProxyEnv))
-			// a service reaches the internet the way the job does; its own env still wins
-			maps0.Copy(interpolatedEnvs, rc.Config.ProxyEnv)
-			for k, v := range spec.Env {
-				if interpolatedEnvs[k], err = rc.ExprEval.Interpolate(ctx, v); err != nil {
-					return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate service %s env %s: %w", serviceID, k, err)
-				}
-			}
-			envs := make([]string, 0, len(interpolatedEnvs))
-			for k, v := range interpolatedEnvs {
-				envs = append(envs, fmt.Sprintf("%s=%s", k, v))
-			}
-			// interpolate cmd
-			interpolatedCmd := make([]string, len(spec.Cmd))
-			for i, v := range spec.Cmd {
-				if interpolatedCmd[i], err = rc.ExprEval.Interpolate(ctx, v); err != nil {
-					return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate service %s command: %w", serviceID, err)
-				}
-			}
-			// keep these local: reusing username/password would overwrite the
-			// credentials the job container is pulled with further down
-			serviceUsername, servicePassword, err := rc.interpolateCredentials(ctx, spec.Credentials, "")
-			if err != nil {
-				return fmt.Errorf("failed to handle service %s credentials: %w", serviceID, err)
-			}
-
-			interpolatedVolumes := make([]string, len(spec.Volumes))
-			for i, volume := range spec.Volumes {
-				if interpolatedVolumes[i], err = rc.ExprEval.Interpolate(ctx, volume); err != nil {
-					return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate service %s volumes: %w", serviceID, err)
-				}
-			}
-			serviceBinds, serviceMounts, _ := splitVolumes(interpolatedVolumes)
-
-			interpolatedPorts := make([]string, len(spec.Ports))
-			for i, port := range spec.Ports {
-				if interpolatedPorts[i], err = rc.ExprEval.Interpolate(ctx, port); err != nil {
-					return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate service %s ports: %w", serviceID, err)
-				}
-			}
-			exposedPorts, portBindings, err := nat.ParsePortSpecs(interpolatedPorts)
-			if err != nil {
-				return fmt.Errorf("failed to parse service %s ports: %w", serviceID, err)
-			}
-			serviceOptions, err := rc.ExprEval.Interpolate(ctx, spec.Options)
-			if err != nil {
-				return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate service %s options: %w", serviceID, err)
-			}
-
-			serviceContainerName := createContainerName(rc.jobContainerName(), serviceID)
-			c := newContainer(&container.NewContainerInput{
-				Name:            serviceContainerName,
-				Image:           serviceImage,
-				Username:        serviceUsername,
-				Password:        servicePassword,
-				Cmd:             interpolatedCmd,
-				Env:             envs,
-				Mounts:          serviceMounts,
-				Binds:           serviceBinds,
-				Stdout:          logWriter,
-				Stderr:          logWriter,
-				Privileged:      rc.Config.Privileged,
-				UsernsMode:      rc.Config.UsernsMode,
-				Platform:        rc.Config.ContainerArchitecture,
-				AutoRemove:      false, // so a dead service's log survives, cleanupJobResources removes it
-				WorkflowOptions: serviceOptions,
-				NetworkMode:     networkName,
-				NetworkAliases:  []string{serviceID},
-				ExposedPorts:    exposedPorts,
-				PortBindings:    portBindings,
-				ValidVolumes:    rc.Config.ValidVolumes, // not validVolumes(), a service gets no docker socket
-				AllocatePTY:     rc.Config.AllocatePTY,
-			})
-			rc.serviceContainers = append(rc.serviceContainers, &serviceContainer{name: serviceID, image: serviceImage, container: c})
+		for _, serviceID := range slices.Sorted(maps0.Keys(services)) {
+			input := services[serviceID]
+			rc.serviceContainers = append(rc.serviceContainers, &serviceContainer{name: serviceID, image: input.Image, container: newContainer(input)})
 		}
 
 		// For Gitea, `jobContainerNetwork` should be the same as `networkName`
 		jobContainerNetwork := networkName
 
-		workflowOptions, err := rc.workflowOptions(ctx)
-		if err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
 		ext := container.LinuxContainerEnvironmentExtensions{}
 		containerInput := &container.NewContainerInput{
 			Cmd:             nil,
-			Entrypoint:      []string{"/bin/sleep", fmt.Sprint(rc.Config.ContainerMaxLifetime.Round(time.Second).Seconds())},
+			Entrypoint:      []string{"sleep", strconv.FormatInt(int64(rc.Config.ContainerMaxLifetime.Round(time.Second).Seconds()), 10)},
 			WorkingDir:      ext.ToContainerPath(rc.Config.Workdir),
 			Image:           image,
 			Username:        username,
@@ -625,7 +588,7 @@ func (rc *RunContext) startJobContainer() common.Executor {
 			UsernsMode:      rc.Config.UsernsMode,
 			Platform:        rc.Config.ContainerArchitecture,
 			RunnerOptions:   rc.Config.ContainerOptions,
-			WorkflowOptions: workflowOptions,
+			WorkflowOptions: rc.containerSpec.Options,
 			AutoRemove:      true,
 			AllocatePTY:     rc.Config.AllocatePTY,
 		}
@@ -642,9 +605,7 @@ func (rc *RunContext) startJobContainer() common.Executor {
 			return err
 		}
 		rc.startDockerProxy(ctx)
-		if containerInput.Binds, containerInput.Mounts, err = rc.GetBindsAndMounts(); err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
+		containerInput.Binds, containerInput.Mounts = rc.GetBindsAndMounts(ctx)
 		containerInput.ValidVolumes = rc.validVolumes()
 
 		rc.jobNetworkName = networkName
@@ -652,37 +613,110 @@ func (rc *RunContext) startJobContainer() common.Executor {
 		return common.NewPipelineExecutor(
 			container.NewDockerNetworkCreateExecutor(networkName, rc.Config.ContainerNetworkCreateOptions).
 				IfBool(createAndDeleteNetwork),
+			container.NewDockerNetworkConnectExecutor(networkName, rc.Config.CacheContainer).
+				IfBool(rc.Config.CacheContainer != ""),
 			rc.startServiceContainers(),
 			rc.reportUnstartedServices(),
 			func(ctx context.Context) error { return rc.createJobVolumes(ctx, containerInput.Mounts) },
 			rc.JobContainer.Create(rc.Config.ContainerCapAdd, rc.Config.ContainerCapDrop),
 			rc.JobContainer.Start(false),
 			rc.captureJobContainerInfo(),
-			rc.JobContainer.Copy(rc.JobContainer.GetActPath()+"/", &container.FileEntry{
-				Name: "workflow/event.json",
-				Mode: 0o644,
-				Body: rc.EventJSON,
-			}, &container.FileEntry{
-				Name: "workflow/envs.txt",
-				Mode: 0o666,
-				Body: "",
-			}),
+			rc.copyWorkflowFiles(),
 			rc.waitForServiceContainers(),
 		)(ctx)
 	}
 }
 
+func (rc *RunContext) jobServices(ctx context.Context, networkName string) (map[string]*container.NewContainerInput, error) {
+	var services map[string]*model.ContainerSpec
+	if err := model.DecodeEvaluated("job services", rc.Run.Job().RawServices, rc.NewExpressionEvaluatorWithEnv(ctx, mergeMaps(rc.GetEnv(), rc.jobEnv)).shared(ctx).EvaluateYamlNode, &services); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	inputs := map[string]*container.NewContainerInput{}
+	for _, serviceID := range slices.Sorted(maps0.Keys(services)) {
+		spec := services[serviceID]
+		if spec == nil {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("service %s has no container definition", serviceID)
+		}
+		spec.Image = strings.TrimPrefix(spec.Image, "docker://")
+		// GitHub compatibility: skip services whose image evaluates to an
+		// empty string, enabling conditional services via expressions
+		if spec.Image == "" {
+			common.Logger(ctx).Infof("The service '%s' will not be started because the container definition has an empty image.", serviceID)
+			continue
+		}
+		envs := make([]string, 0, len(spec.Env)+len(rc.Config.ProxyEnv))
+		// a service reaches the internet the way the job does; its own env still wins
+		for k, v := range mergeMaps(rc.Config.ProxyEnv, spec.Env) {
+			envs = append(envs, fmt.Sprintf("%s=%s", k, v))
+		}
+		serviceUsername, servicePassword, err := registryCredentials(spec.Credentials, "")
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to handle service %s credentials: %w", serviceID, err)
+		}
+		cmd := spec.Cmd
+		if len(cmd) == 0 && spec.Command != "" {
+			if cmd, err = shellquote.Split(spec.Command); err != nil {
+				return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to parse service %s command: %w", serviceID, err)
+			}
+		}
+		var entrypoint []string
+		if spec.Entrypoint != "" {
+			entrypoint = []string{spec.Entrypoint}
+		}
+
+		serviceBinds, serviceMounts, _ := splitVolumes(spec.Volumes)
+
+		exposedPorts, portBindings, err := nat.ParsePortSpecs(spec.Ports)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to parse service %s ports: %w", serviceID, err)
+		}
+
+		serviceLog := common.NewLineWriter(rawLogLine(ctx)) // raw, so a service's output cannot set the job's env, outputs or state
+		inputs[serviceID] = &container.NewContainerInput{
+			Name:            createContainerName(rc.jobContainerName(), serviceID),
+			Image:           spec.Image,
+			Username:        serviceUsername,
+			Password:        servicePassword,
+			Entrypoint:      entrypoint,
+			Cmd:             cmd,
+			Env:             envs,
+			Mounts:          serviceMounts,
+			Binds:           serviceBinds,
+			Stdout:          serviceLog,
+			Stderr:          serviceLog,
+			Privileged:      rc.Config.Privileged,
+			UsernsMode:      rc.Config.UsernsMode,
+			Platform:        rc.Config.ContainerArchitecture,
+			AutoRemove:      false, // so a dead service's log survives, cleanupJobResources removes it
+			WorkflowOptions: spec.Options,
+			NetworkMode:     networkName,
+			NetworkAliases:  []string{serviceID},
+			ExposedPorts:    exposedPorts,
+			PortBindings:    portBindings,
+			ValidVolumes:    rc.Config.ValidVolumes, // not validVolumes(), a service gets no docker socket
+			AllocatePTY:     rc.Config.AllocatePTY,
+		}
+	}
+	return inputs, nil
+}
+
 func (rc *RunContext) commandLogWriter(ctx context.Context) io.Writer {
+	return common.NewLineWriter(rc.commandHandler(ctx), rawLogLine(ctx))
+}
+
+func rawLogLine(ctx context.Context) common.LineHandler {
 	rawLogger := common.Logger(ctx).WithField(rawOutputField, true)
-	return common.NewLineWriter(rc.commandHandler(ctx), func(line string) bool {
+	return func(line string) bool {
 		rawLogger.Infof("%s", line)
 		return true
-	})
+	}
 }
 
 func (rc *RunContext) cleanupJobResources(networkName string, createAndDeleteNetwork, preclean bool) common.Executor {
 	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
 		logger := common.Logger(ctx)
+		rc.printServiceLogs(ctx)
 		errs := []error{rc.closeDockerProxy(ctx)}
 		if rc.JobContainer != nil {
 			errs = append(errs, rc.JobContainer.Remove()(ctx))
@@ -701,6 +735,8 @@ func (rc *RunContext) cleanupJobResources(networkName string, createAndDeleteNet
 		}
 		if createAndDeleteNetwork {
 			logger.Infof("Cleaning up network for job %s, and network name is: %s", rc.JobName, networkName)
+			errs = append(errs, container.NewDockerNetworkDisconnectExecutor(networkName, rc.Config.CacheContainer).
+				IfBool(rc.Config.CacheContainer != "")(ctx))
 			errs = append(errs, container.NewDockerNetworkRemoveExecutor(networkName)(ctx))
 		}
 		return errors.Join(errs...)
@@ -811,6 +847,14 @@ func (rc *RunContext) stopJobContainer() common.Executor {
 	}
 }
 
+func (rc *RunContext) removeDockerActionImages(ctx context.Context) {
+	for _, image := range rc.dockerActionImages {
+		if _, err := container.RemoveImage(ctx, image, true, false); err != nil {
+			common.Logger(ctx).Warnf("failed to remove action image %s: %v", image, err)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
 func (rc *RunContext) pullServicesImages(forcePull bool) common.Executor {
 	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
 		execs := []common.Executor{}
@@ -827,6 +871,7 @@ func (rc *RunContext) startServiceContainers() common.Executor {
 		for _, svc := range rc.serviceContainers {
 			execs = append(execs, common.NewPipelineExecutor(
 				svc.container.Create(rc.Config.ContainerCapAdd, rc.Config.ContainerCapDrop),
+				func(context.Context) error { svc.created = true; return nil },
 				svc.container.Start(false),
 			))
 		}
@@ -965,6 +1010,26 @@ func (svc *serviceContainer) dumpLogs(ctx context.Context) {
 	}
 }
 
+const serviceLogsTimeout = 15 * time.Second // cleanup gets one minute in total
+
+func (rc *RunContext) printServiceLogs(ctx context.Context) {
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(ctx, serviceLogsTimeout)
+	defer cancel()
+	rawLogger := common.Logger(ctx).WithField(rawOutputField, true)
+	for _, svc := range rc.serviceContainers {
+		if !svc.created || svc.logsDumped {
+			continue
+		}
+		rawLogger.Infof("::group::Print service container logs: %s", EscapeCommandData(svc.name))
+		svc.dumpLogs(ctx)
+		rawLogger.Infof("::endgroup::")
+		if ctx.Err() != nil {
+			common.Logger(ctx).Warnf("Timed out printing the service logs after %s", serviceLogsTimeout)
+			return
+		}
+	}
+}
+
 // inspect also records the state for the `job.services` context.
 func (svc *serviceContainer) inspect(ctx context.Context) (*container.Info, error) {
 	info, err := svc.container.Inspect(ctx)
@@ -982,6 +1047,13 @@ func (svc *serviceContainer) healthOutputSuffix() string {
 	return ": " + svc.info.HealthOutput
 }
 
+func (rc *RunContext) copyWorkflowFiles() common.Executor {
+	return rc.JobContainer.Copy(rc.JobContainer.GetActPath()+"/",
+		&container.FileEntry{Name: "workflow/event.json", Mode: 0o644, Body: rc.EventJSON},
+		&container.FileEntry{Name: "workflow/envs.txt", Mode: 0o666},
+	)
+}
+
 // captureJobContainerInfo is a convenience: failing to describe the container must not
 // fail the job.
 func (rc *RunContext) captureJobContainerInfo() common.Executor {
@@ -995,12 +1067,8 @@ func (rc *RunContext) captureJobContainerInfo() common.Executor {
 		if rc.dockerProxy != nil {
 			rc.dockerProxy.SetMounts(info.Mounts)
 		}
-		workspace := rc.githubWorkspace()
-		for dir := workspace; dir != "/" && dir != "."; dir = path.Dir(dir) {
-			if source := info.Mounts[dir]; source != "" {
-				rc.Env["GITEA_DOCKER_WORKSPACE"] = path.Join(source, strings.TrimPrefix(workspace, dir))
-				break
-			}
+		if source := info.DaemonPath(rc.githubWorkspace()); source != "" {
+			rc.Env["GITEA_DOCKER_WORKSPACE"] = source
 		}
 		return nil
 	}
@@ -1038,48 +1106,28 @@ func lockJob(job *model.Job) func() {
 
 func (rc *RunContext) interpolateOutputs() common.Executor {
 	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
-		ee := rc.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx)
 		job := rc.Run.Job()
-		// Matrix combinations share this Job and its Outputs map. Interpolate from this combo's
-		// pristine snapshot (outputTemplate) and write under the lock, so each combo overwrites
-		// with its own resolved values (last wins, as on GitHub) instead of the first combo's
-		// resolved values freezing the shared template against later combos.
-		// Resolved up front so one failure publishes none of them, as GitHub does.
-		var deferredOutputs map[string]string
-		if err := decodeDeferred(ctx, ee, "job outputs", job.RawOutputs, &deferredOutputs); err != nil {
+		var outputs map[string]string
+		if err := model.DecodeEvaluated("job outputs", job.RawOutputs, rc.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx).shared(ctx).EvaluateYamlNode, &outputs); err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
-		if deferredOutputs != nil {
-			defer lockJob(job)()
-			job.Outputs = deferredOutputs
-			return nil
-		}
-		outputs := make(map[string]string, len(rc.outputTemplate))
-		var err error
-		for k, v := range rc.outputTemplate {
-			if outputs[k], err = ee.Interpolate(ctx, v); err != nil {
-				err = fmt.Errorf("failed to evaluate job output %q: %w", k, err)
-				break
-			}
-		}
+		// Matrix combinations share the job, so as on GitHub a failure publishes nothing and the last non-empty value wins.
+		maps0.DeleteFunc(outputs, func(_, value string) bool { return value == "" })
 		defer lockJob(job)()
-		for k := range rc.outputTemplate {
-			if err != nil {
-				job.Outputs[k] = ""
-				continue
-			}
-			job.Outputs[k] = outputs[k]
-		}
-		return err
+		job.Outputs = mergeMaps(job.Outputs, outputs)
+		return nil
 	}
 }
 
 func (rc *RunContext) startContainer() common.Executor {
 	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
 		var err error
-		if rc.IsHostEnv() {
+		switch {
+		case rc.kubernetes:
+			err = rc.startKubernetesPod()(ctx)
+		case rc.IsHostEnv():
 			err = rc.startHostEnvironment()(ctx)
-		} else {
+		default:
 			err = rc.startJobContainer()(ctx)
 		}
 		if err != nil {
@@ -1104,7 +1152,7 @@ func (rc *RunContext) cleanupFailedStart(ctx context.Context) {
 }
 
 func (rc *RunContext) IsHostEnv() bool {
-	return strings.EqualFold(rc.platformImage, "-self-hosted")
+	return rc.containerSpec.Image == "" && strings.EqualFold(rc.platformImage, "-self-hosted")
 }
 
 func (rc *RunContext) stopContainer() common.Executor {
@@ -1173,9 +1221,7 @@ func (rc *RunContext) Executor() (common.Executor, error) {
 	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
 		res, err := rc.isEnabled(ctx)
 		if err != nil {
-			// Record the failure so a job whose if-expression fails to evaluate
-			// gets a result (and therefore a stop time) instead of being left
-			// unfinished. rc.caller is only set for reusable workflows.
+			// Record the failure so a job that cannot start gets a stop time. rc.caller is only set for reusable workflows.
 			rc.result("failure")
 			if rc.caller != nil { // For Gitea
 				rc.caller.setReusedWorkflowJobResult(rc.Run.JobID, "failure")
@@ -1189,20 +1235,8 @@ func (rc *RunContext) Executor() (common.Executor, error) {
 	}, nil
 }
 
-func (rc *RunContext) containerImage(ctx context.Context) (string, error) {
-	c := rc.Run.Job().Container()
-	if c == nil {
-		return "", nil
-	}
-	image, err := rc.ExprEval.Interpolate(ctx, c.Image)
-	if err != nil {
-		return "", fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate container.image: %w", err)
-	}
-	return image, nil
-}
-
 func (rc *RunContext) runsOnImage(ctx context.Context) (string, error) {
-	if rc.Run.Job().RunsOn() == nil {
+	if rc.Run.Job().RunsOn() == nil && rc.containerSpec.Image == "" {
 		common.Logger(ctx).Errorf("'runs-on' key not defined in %s", rc.String())
 	}
 
@@ -1238,26 +1272,55 @@ func (rc *RunContext) runsOnPlatformNames(ctx context.Context) []string {
 	return model.RunsOnFromNode(rawRunsOn)
 }
 
-// resolvePlatformImage evaluates the job's image once, so every consumer sees the image the job started with.
+// resolvePlatformImage evaluates the job's container once for every consumer, skipping one whose image is empty as GitHub does.
 func (rc *RunContext) resolvePlatformImage(ctx context.Context) error {
-	image, err := rc.containerImage(ctx)
-	if err == nil && image == "" {
-		image, err = rc.runsOnImage(ctx)
+	rc.jobEnv, _ = evaluateJobEnv(ctx, rc) // a broken env fails the job at setup instead
+	withoutEnv, env := splitContainerEnv(rc.Run.Job().RawContainer)
+	var spec model.ContainerSpec
+	if err := model.DecodeEvaluated("container", withoutEnv, rc.NewExpressionEvaluatorWithEnv(ctx, rc.jobEnv).shared(ctx).EvaluateYamlNode, &spec); err != nil {
+		return err
 	}
-	rc.platformImage = image
-	return err
+	spec.Image = strings.TrimPrefix(spec.Image, "docker://")
+	if spec.Image != "" || imagelessContainer(withoutEnv) {
+		rc.containerSpec, rc.containerEnv = spec, env
+	}
+	image, err := rc.runsOnImage(ctx)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	image, rc.kubernetes = strings.CutPrefix(image, "kubernetes://")
+	rc.platformImage = cmp.Or(rc.containerSpec.Image, image)
+	return nil
 }
 
-func (rc *RunContext) workflowOptions(ctx context.Context) (string, error) {
-	c := rc.Run.Job().Container()
-	if c == nil {
-		return "", nil
+// imagelessContainer reports a container: mapping without an image key, which configures the runs-on image.
+func imagelessContainer(container yaml.Node) bool {
+	if container.Kind != yaml.MappingNode {
+		return false
 	}
-	options, err := rc.ExprEval.Interpolate(ctx, c.Options)
-	if err != nil {
-		return "", fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate container.options: %w", err)
+	for i := 0; i < len(container.Content); i += 2 {
+		if container.Content[i].Value == "image" {
+			return false
+		}
 	}
-	return options, nil
+	return true
+}
+
+// splitContainerEnv takes `env` out of a container mapping, since env reads the job env that resolves after the job environment starts.
+func splitContainerEnv(container yaml.Node) (withoutEnv, env yaml.Node) {
+	if container.Kind != yaml.MappingNode {
+		return container, env
+	}
+	withoutEnv = container
+	withoutEnv.Content = nil
+	for i := 0; i+1 < len(container.Content); i += 2 {
+		if container.Content[i].Value == "env" {
+			env = *container.Content[i+1]
+		} else {
+			withoutEnv.Content = append(withoutEnv.Content, container.Content[i:i+2]...)
+		}
+	}
+	return withoutEnv, env
 }
 
 func (rc *RunContext) isEnabled(ctx context.Context) (bool, error) {
@@ -1267,7 +1330,7 @@ func (rc *RunContext) isEnabled(ctx context.Context) (bool, error) {
 	jobType, jobTypeErr := job.Type()
 
 	if runJobErr != nil {
-		return false, fmt.Errorf("if-expression %q evaluation failed: %s", job.If.Value, runJobErr)
+		l.Errorf("Error when evaluating 'if' for job '%s'. %v", rc.Run.JobID, runJobErr)
 	}
 
 	if jobType == model.JobTypeInvalid {
@@ -1344,21 +1407,26 @@ func trimToLen(s string, l int) string {
 	return s
 }
 
-func (rc *RunContext) getJobContext() *model.JobContext {
-	jobStatus := "success"
+// ownStatus is the result of this context's own steps, which for a composite action is its action status
+func (rc *RunContext) ownStatus() string {
 	if rc.jobFailed {
-		jobStatus = "failure"
+		return "failure"
 	}
 	for _, stepStatus := range rc.StepResults {
 		if stepStatus.Conclusion == model.StepStatusFailure {
-			jobStatus = "failure"
-			break
+			return "failure"
 		}
 	}
+	return "success"
+}
+
+func (rc *RunContext) getJobContext() *model.JobContext {
+	job := rc.topLevelRunContext()
+	jobStatus := job.ownStatus()
 	// A cancelled run takes precedence over success/failure so cancelled() is true and
 	// success()/failure() are false, matching GitHub Actions: on cancellation only
 	// always() and cancelled() steps run.
-	if rc.jobCancelled {
+	if job.jobCancelled {
 		jobStatus = "cancelled"
 	}
 
@@ -1366,17 +1434,17 @@ func (rc *RunContext) getJobContext() *model.JobContext {
 		Status:   jobStatus,
 		Services: map[string]model.JobService{}, // an empty map, never null
 	}
-	if rc.jobContainerID != "" {
-		jobContext.Container.ID = rc.jobContainerID
-		jobContext.Container.Network = rc.jobNetworkName
+	if job.jobContainerID != "" {
+		jobContext.Container.ID = job.jobContainerID
+		jobContext.Container.Network = job.jobNetworkName
 	}
-	for _, svc := range rc.serviceContainers {
+	for _, svc := range job.serviceContainers {
 		if svc.info == nil {
 			continue
 		}
 		jobContext.Services[svc.name] = model.JobService{
 			ID:      svc.info.ID,
-			Network: rc.jobNetworkName,
+			Network: job.jobNetworkName,
 			Ports:   svc.info.Ports,
 		}
 	}
@@ -1471,22 +1539,11 @@ func (rc *RunContext) getGithubContext(ctx context.Context) *model.GithubContext
 
 	{ // Adapt to Gitea
 		if preset := rc.Config.PresetGitHubContext; preset != nil {
-			ghc.Event = preset.Event
-			ghc.RunID = preset.RunID
-			ghc.RunNumber = preset.RunNumber
-			ghc.RunAttempt = preset.RunAttempt
-			ghc.Actor = preset.Actor
-			ghc.Repository = preset.Repository
-			ghc.EventName = preset.EventName
-			ghc.Sha = preset.Sha
-			ghc.Ref = preset.Ref
-			ghc.RefName = preset.RefName
-			ghc.RefType = preset.RefType
-			ghc.HeadRef = preset.HeadRef
-			ghc.BaseRef = preset.BaseRef
-			ghc.Token = preset.Token
-			ghc.RepositoryOwner = preset.RepositoryOwner
-			ghc.RetentionDays = preset.RetentionDays
+			merged := *preset
+			merged.Workflow, merged.Job, merged.Workspace, merged.EventPath = ghc.Workflow, ghc.Job, ghc.Workspace, ghc.EventPath
+			merged.Action, merged.ActionPath, merged.ActionRepository, merged.ActionRef = ghc.Action, ghc.ActionPath, ghc.ActionRepository, ghc.ActionRef
+			merged.RunnerPerflog, merged.RunnerTrackingID = ghc.RunnerPerflog, ghc.RunnerTrackingID
+			*ghc = merged
 
 			instance := rc.Config.GitHubInstance
 			if !strings.HasPrefix(instance, "http://") &&
@@ -1563,12 +1620,7 @@ func isLocalCheckout(ghc *model.GithubContext, step *model.Step) bool {
 	if step.Type() != model.StepTypeUsesActionRemote {
 		return false
 	}
-	remoteAction := newRemoteAction(step.Uses)
-	if remoteAction == nil {
-		// IsCheckout() will nil panic if we dont bail out early
-		return false
-	}
-	if !remoteAction.IsCheckout() {
+	if uses, err := model.ParseActionUses(step.Uses); err != nil || uses.Owner != "actions" || uses.Repo != "checkout" {
 		return false
 	}
 
@@ -1581,23 +1633,6 @@ func isLocalCheckout(ghc *model.GithubContext, step *model.Step) bool {
 	return true
 }
 
-func nestedMapLookup(m map[string]any, ks ...string) (rval any) {
-	var ok bool
-
-	if len(ks) == 0 { // degenerate input
-		return nil
-	}
-	if rval, ok = m[ks[0]]; !ok {
-		return nil
-	} else if len(ks) == 1 { // we've reached the final key
-		return rval
-	} else if m, ok = rval.(map[string]any); !ok {
-		return nil
-	} else { // 1+ more keys
-		return nestedMapLookup(m, ks[1:]...)
-	}
-}
-
 func (rc *RunContext) withGithubEnv(ctx context.Context, github *model.GithubContext, env map[string]string) {
 	env["CI"] = "true"
 	env["GITHUB_WORKFLOW"] = github.Workflow
@@ -1721,41 +1756,17 @@ func setActionRuntimeVars(rc *RunContext, env map[string]string) {
 	env["ACTIONS_RUNTIME_TOKEN"] = actionsRuntimeToken
 }
 
-func (rc *RunContext) handleCredentials(ctx context.Context) (string, string, error) {
-	container := rc.Run.Job().Container()
-	if container == nil || container.Credentials == nil {
-		return "", "", nil
-	}
-
-	return rc.interpolateCredentials(ctx, container.Credentials, "container.")
-}
-
-func (rc *RunContext) interpolateCredentials(ctx context.Context, credentials map[string]string, prefix string) (string, string, error) {
+func registryCredentials(credentials map[string]string, prefix string) (string, string, error) {
 	if credentials == nil {
 		return "", "", nil
 	}
 	if len(credentials) != 2 {
 		return "", "", errors.New("invalid property count for key 'credentials:'")
 	}
-
-	ee := rc.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx)
-	interpolate := func(key string) (string, error) {
-		value, err := ee.Interpolate(ctx, credentials[key])
-		if err != nil {
-			return "", fmt.Errorf("failed to interpolate %scredentials.%s: %w", prefix, key, err)
+	for _, key := range []string{"username", "password"} {
+		if credentials[key] == "" {
+			return "", "", fmt.Errorf("failed to interpolate %scredentials.%s", prefix, key)
 		}
-		if value == "" {
-			return "", fmt.Errorf("failed to interpolate %scredentials.%s", prefix, key)
-		}
-		return value, nil
 	}
-	username, err := interpolate("username")
-	if err != nil {
-		return "", "", err
-	}
-	password, err := interpolate("password")
-	if err != nil {
-		return "", "", err
-	}
-	return username, password, nil
+	return credentials["username"], credentials["password"], nil
 }

act/runner/run_context_test.go

@@ -32,6 +32,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/docker/cli/cli/compose/loader"
 	"github.com/moby/moby/api/types/volume"
 	log "github.com/sirupsen/logrus"
+	logrustest "github.com/sirupsen/logrus/hooks/test"
 	assert "github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/mock"
 	require "github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
@@ -185,38 +186,6 @@ func TestRunContext_EvalBool(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-func TestRunContextHandleCredentialsDoesNotUseDockerSecrets(t *testing.T) {
-	workflow, err := model.ReadWorkflow(strings.NewReader(`
-name: test
-on: push
-jobs:
-  job:
-    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
-    steps: []
-`))
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-
-	rc := &RunContext{
-		Config: &Config{
-			Secrets: map[string]string{
-				"DOCKER_USERNAME": "docker-user",
-				"DOCKER_PASSWORD": "docker-password",
-			},
-			Env: map[string]string{},
-		},
-		Run: &model.Run{
-			JobID:    "job",
-			Workflow: workflow,
-		},
-	}
-
-	// DOCKER_USERNAME/DOCKER_PASSWORD secrets should not be used as implicit job container pull credentials.
-	username, password, err := rc.handleCredentials(t.Context())
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-	assert.Empty(t, username)
-	assert.Empty(t, password)
-}
-
 // fakeContainer turns every container operation into a no-op, so startJobContainer
 // runs without a Docker daemon. The embedded interface is nil, so any method the
 // test does not exercise panics rather than silently doing the wrong thing.
@@ -282,7 +251,6 @@ func startJobContainerInputs(t *testing.T, workflowYAML string, cfg *Config) []*
 	rc := &RunContext{
 		Name:   "test",
 		Config: cfg,
-		Env:    map[string]string{},
 		Run: &model.Run{
 			JobID:    "job",
 			Workflow: workflow,
@@ -370,19 +338,52 @@ jobs:
 	require.Equal(t, map[string]string{"data": "/data"}, redis.Mounts)
 	require.Empty(t, redis.Binds) // the docker socket is the job container's alone
 	require.Empty(t, redis.WorkingDir)
+	require.Nil(t, redis.Entrypoint)
+	require.Nil(t, redis.Cmd)
 }
 
-// A whole-value `services:` expression only reaches the typed field through DecodeRaw.
-func TestStartJobContainerGivesServicesTheirVolumesFromExpression(t *testing.T) {
-	redis := startJobContainerInputs(t, `
+func TestStartJobContainerBuildsEvaluatedJobAndServiceInputs(t *testing.T) {
+	inputs := startJobContainerInputs(t, `
 jobs:
   job:
-    services: ${{ fromJSON('{"redis":{"image":"redis:latest","volumes":["data:/data"]}}') }}
-`, &Config{ValidVolumes: []string{"data"}})[0]
+    container: ${{ fromJSON('{"image":"docker://node:20","options":"--label ${{ github.job }}","credentials":{"username":"user","password":"${{ vars.TITLE }}"}}') }}
+    services: ${{ fromJSON('{"redis":{"image":"docker://redis:latest","volumes":["data:/data"],"env":{"TITLE":"${{ github.job }}"},"credentials":{"username":"user","password":"${{ github.job }}"},"entrypoint":"/entry.sh","command":"redis-server --port 6380"}}') }}
+`, &Config{})
+	redis, job := inputs[0], inputs[1]
 
 	require.Equal(t, "redis:latest", redis.Image)
-	require.Equal(t, []string{"data"}, redis.ValidVolumes)
 	require.Equal(t, map[string]string{"data": "/data"}, redis.Mounts)
+	require.Equal(t, []string{"TITLE=${{ github.job }}"}, redis.Env)
+	require.Equal(t, "${{ github.job }}", redis.Password)
+	require.Equal(t, []string{"/entry.sh"}, redis.Entrypoint)
+	require.Equal(t, []string{"redis-server", "--port", "6380"}, redis.Cmd)
+	require.Equal(t, "node:20", job.Image)
+	require.Equal(t, "sleep", job.Entrypoint[0])
+	require.Equal(t, "--label ${{ github.job }}", job.WorkflowOptions)
+	require.Equal(t, "${{ vars.TITLE }}", job.Password)
+
+	inputs = startJobContainerInputs(t, `
+env:
+  REG_USER: ${{ vars.REG_USER }}
+  TEXT: ${{ vars.TEXT }}
+  JOB_CONTAINER_NAME: from-workflow
+jobs:
+  job:
+    container:
+      image: node:20
+      credentials: {username: "${{ env.REG_USER }}", password: pass}
+    services:
+      redis:
+        image: redis:latest
+        credentials: {username: "${{ env.REG_USER }}", password: pass}
+        env: {TEXT: "${{ env.TEXT }}"}
+        options: --volumes-from ${{ env.JOB_CONTAINER_NAME }}
+`, &Config{Vars: map[string]string{"REG_USER": "user", "TEXT": "${{ 'literal' }}"}})
+	redis, job = inputs[0], inputs[1]
+	require.Equal(t, "user", job.Username)
+	require.Equal(t, "user", redis.Username)
+	require.Equal(t, []string{"TEXT=${{ 'literal' }}"}, redis.Env)
+	require.Equal(t, "--volumes-from "+job.Name, redis.WorkflowOptions)
 }
 
 // Only the workflow's options may be stripped later, so the two sources have to reach the
@@ -435,17 +436,14 @@ jobs:
     steps: []
 `, &Config{ProxyEnv: map[string]string{"http_proxy": "http://proxy:3128", "no_proxy": "internal.example"}})
 
-	env := map[string][]string{}
-	for _, in := range inputs {
-		env[in.Image] = in.Env
-	}
+	db, redis := inputs[0], inputs[1]
 
-	require.Contains(t, env["redis:latest"], "http_proxy=http://proxy:3128")
-	require.Contains(t, env["redis:latest"], "no_proxy=internal.example")
+	require.Contains(t, redis.Env, "http_proxy=http://proxy:3128")
+	require.Contains(t, redis.Env, "no_proxy=internal.example")
 	// the service's own env wins over what the runner injected, without dropping the rest
-	require.Contains(t, env["postgres:latest"], "no_proxy=db-only.example")
-	require.NotContains(t, env["postgres:latest"], "no_proxy=internal.example")
-	require.Contains(t, env["postgres:latest"], "http_proxy=http://proxy:3128")
+	require.Contains(t, db.Env, "no_proxy=db-only.example")
+	require.NotContains(t, db.Env, "no_proxy=internal.example")
+	require.Contains(t, db.Env, "http_proxy=http://proxy:3128")
 }
 
 // act builds Dockerfile actions through the API, which does not pre-populate the proxy
@@ -506,8 +504,7 @@ func TestRunContext_GetBindsAndMounts(t *testing.T) {
 					config := testcase.rc.Config
 					config.Workdir = testcase.name
 					config.BindWorkdir = bindWorkDir
-					gotbind, gotmount, err := rctemplate.GetBindsAndMounts()
-					require.NoError(t, err)
+					gotbind, gotmount := rctemplate.GetBindsAndMounts(t.Context())
 
 					// Name binds/mounts are either/or
 					if config.BindWorkdir {
@@ -543,8 +540,9 @@ func TestRunContext_GetBindsAndMounts(t *testing.T) {
 
 		t.Run("InterpolatedContainerVolumes", func(t *testing.T) {
 			job := &model.Job{}
-			err := job.RawContainer.Encode(map[string][]string{
-				"volumes": {"${{ secrets.MAME }}:/root/.mame/roms:ro"},
+			err := job.RawContainer.Encode(map[string]any{
+				"image":   "node:20",
+				"volumes": []string{"${{ secrets.MAME }}:/root/.mame/roms:ro"},
 			})
 			require.NoError(t, err)
 
@@ -556,7 +554,8 @@ func TestRunContext_GetBindsAndMounts(t *testing.T) {
 					},
 				},
 				Config: &Config{
-					BindWorkdir: false,
+					BindWorkdir:  false,
+					ValidVolumes: []string{"**"},
 					Secrets: map[string]string{
 						"MAME": "/host/mame/roms",
 					},
@@ -565,9 +564,9 @@ func TestRunContext_GetBindsAndMounts(t *testing.T) {
 			rc.Run.JobID = "job1"
 			rc.Run.Workflow.Jobs = map[string]*model.Job{"job1": job}
 			rc.ExprEval = rc.NewExpressionEvaluator(context.Background())
+			require.NoError(t, rc.resolvePlatformImage(context.Background()))
 
-			gotbind, gotmount, err := rc.GetBindsAndMounts()
-			require.NoError(t, err)
+			gotbind, gotmount := rc.GetBindsAndMounts(t.Context())
 			assert.Contains(t, gotbind, "/host/mame/roms:/root/.mame/roms:ro")
 			assert.NotContains(t, gotbind, "${{ secrets.MAME }}")
 			assert.NotContains(t, gotmount, "${{ secrets.MAME }}")
@@ -575,12 +574,6 @@ func TestRunContext_GetBindsAndMounts(t *testing.T) {
 
 		for _, testcase := range tests {
 			t.Run(testcase.name, func(t *testing.T) {
-				job := &model.Job{}
-				err := job.RawContainer.Encode(map[string][]string{
-					"volumes": testcase.volumes,
-				})
-				assert.NoError(t, err) //nolint:testifylint // pre-existing issue from nektos/act
-
 				rc := &RunContext{
 					Name: "TestRCName",
 					Run: &model.Run{
@@ -591,13 +584,13 @@ func TestRunContext_GetBindsAndMounts(t *testing.T) {
 					Config: &Config{
 						BindWorkdir:     false,
 						SharedToolCache: true, // so OverridesToolCache has a mount to displace
+						ValidVolumes:    []string{"**"},
 					},
+					containerSpec: model.ContainerSpec{Volumes: testcase.volumes},
 				}
 				rc.Run.JobID = "job1"
-				rc.Run.Workflow.Jobs = map[string]*model.Job{"job1": job}
 
-				gotbind, gotmount, err := rc.GetBindsAndMounts()
-				require.NoError(t, err)
+				gotbind, gotmount := rc.GetBindsAndMounts(t.Context())
 
 				if len(testcase.wantbind) > 0 {
 					assert.Contains(t, gotbind, testcase.wantbind)
@@ -632,13 +625,12 @@ func TestRunContext_GetBindsAndMounts(t *testing.T) {
 			Config: &Config{},
 		}
 
-		_, gotmount, err := rc.GetBindsAndMounts()
-		require.NoError(t, err)
+		_, gotmount := rc.GetBindsAndMounts(t.Context())
 		assert.NotContains(t, gotmount, sharedToolCacheVolume)
 
 		rc.Config.SharedToolCache = true
-		_, gotmount, err = rc.GetBindsAndMounts()
-		require.NoError(t, err)
+		rc.containerSpec.Volumes = []string{"/unapproved:" + container.DefaultToolCache}
+		_, gotmount = rc.GetBindsAndMounts(t.Context())
 		assert.Equal(t, container.DefaultToolCache, gotmount[sharedToolCacheVolume])
 	})
 
@@ -648,21 +640,18 @@ func TestRunContext_GetBindsAndMounts(t *testing.T) {
 		}
 		rc := &RunContext{
 			Run:    &model.Run{JobID: "job1", Workflow: &model.Workflow{Jobs: map[string]*model.Job{"job1": {}}}},
-			Config: &Config{BindWorkdir: true, Workdir: "/workspace/1/owner/repo", PresetGitHubContext: &model.GithubContext{}},
+			Config: &Config{BindWorkdir: true, Workdir: "/workspace/1/owner/repo", PresetGitHubContext: &model.GithubContext{}, ValidVolumes: []string{"claimed"}},
 		}
 
-		gotbind, _, err := rc.GetBindsAndMounts()
-		require.NoError(t, err)
+		gotbind, _ := rc.GetBindsAndMounts(t.Context())
 		assert.True(t, slices.ContainsFunc(gotbind, func(bind string) bool { return strings.HasPrefix(bind, "/workspace/1:/workspace/1") }), gotbind)
 
 		rc.Config.BindWorkdir = false
-		_, gotmount, err := rc.GetBindsAndMounts()
-		require.NoError(t, err)
+		_, gotmount := rc.GetBindsAndMounts(t.Context())
 		assert.Equal(t, "/workspace/1", gotmount[rc.jobContainerName()])
 
-		require.NoError(t, rc.Run.Job().RawContainer.Encode(map[string][]string{"volumes": {"claimed:/workspace/1"}}))
-		_, gotmount, err = rc.GetBindsAndMounts()
-		require.NoError(t, err)
+		rc.containerSpec.Volumes = []string{"claimed:/workspace/1"}
+		_, gotmount = rc.GetBindsAndMounts(t.Context())
 		assert.Equal(t, "/workspace/1/owner/repo", gotmount[rc.jobContainerName()])
 	})
 }
@@ -695,6 +684,15 @@ func TestRunContextValidVolumes(t *testing.T) {
 	assert.Contains(t, rc.validVolumes(), rc.Config.Workdir)
 	rc.Config.PresetGitHubContext = &model.GithubContext{}
 	assert.Contains(t, rc.validVolumes(), filepath.FromSlash("/workspace/1"))
+
+	hostEnv := &container.HostEnvironment{Path: t.TempDir(), ActPath: t.TempDir()}
+	rc.JobContainer = hostEnv
+	rc.Config.BindWorkdir = false
+	rc.Config.SharedToolCache = true
+	binds, mounts := rc.GetBindsAndMounts(t.Context())
+	assert.Subset(t, binds, []string{hostEnv.Path + ":" + hostEnv.Path, hostEnv.GetActPath() + ":" + hostEnv.GetActPath()})
+	assert.Contains(t, mounts, sharedToolCacheVolume)
+	assert.Equal(t, binds, container.SanitizeBinds(t.Context(), rc.validVolumes(), binds))
 }
 
 func TestCleanupJobResourcesCleansServicesWithoutJobContainer(t *testing.T) {
@@ -763,6 +761,20 @@ func TestCleanupJobVolumesReapsAbandonedDeferredCleanup(t *testing.T) {
 	assert.ElementsMatch(t, []string{"became-active", "remove-failed", "foreign", "fresh", "unknown-age"}, slices.Collect(maps.Keys(volumes)))
 }
 
+func TestRemoveDockerActionImagesByTag(t *testing.T) {
+	var removed []string
+	fakeDockerDaemon(t, func(writer http.ResponseWriter, request *http.Request) {
+		if request.Method == http.MethodDelete {
+			removed = append(removed, strings.TrimPrefix(request.URL.Path, "/v1.47/images/"))
+			_, _ = io.WriteString(writer, "[]")
+			return
+		}
+		_, _ = io.WriteString(writer, `{"Id":"sha256:shared"}`)
+	})
+	(&RunContext{dockerActionImages: map[*model.Step]string{{}: "act-action-dockeraction:latest-job"}}).removeDockerActionImages(t.Context())
+	assert.Equal(t, []string{"act-action-dockeraction:latest-job"}, removed)
+}
+
 func TestCleanupJobResourcesContinuesAfterFailure(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Setenv("TMPDIR", "/tmp")
 	proxyDir := t.TempDir()
@@ -778,7 +790,7 @@ func TestCleanupJobResourcesContinuesAfterFailure(t *testing.T) {
 			service.On("Remove").Return(func(context.Context) error { return removeError }).Once()
 			service.On("Close").Return(func(context.Context) error { return closeError }).Once()
 			rc := &RunContext{
-				Config:            &Config{},
+				Config:            &Config{CacheContainer: "cache-container"},
 				Run:               &model.Run{Workflow: &model.Workflow{Name: "wf"}, JobID: "job"},
 				JobContainer:      job,
 				serviceContainers: []*serviceContainer{{name: "svc", container: service}},
@@ -829,7 +841,7 @@ func TestCleanupJobResourcesContinuesAfterFailure(t *testing.T) {
 			if name == "canceled" {
 				require.ErrorIs(t, err, context.Canceled)
 			} else {
-				for _, operation := range []string{"DELETE /volumes/" + rc.jobContainerName(), "DELETE /volumes/" + rc.jobContainerName() + "-env", "GET /networks"} {
+				for _, operation := range []string{"DELETE /volumes/" + rc.jobContainerName(), "DELETE /volumes/" + rc.jobContainerName() + "-env", "POST /networks/job-network/disconnect", "GET /networks"} {
 					require.ErrorContains(t, err, operation)
 				}
 				assert.Equal(t, 2, volumeRemovals)
@@ -845,25 +857,30 @@ func TestCleanupJobResourcesContinuesAfterFailure(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-// TestInterpolateOutputsIsPerMatrixCombo guards the matrix-output fix: combinations share one
-// *model.Job, so each must interpolate from its own pristine snapshot. Otherwise the first
-// combo's resolved value freezes the shared template and later combos can't resolve their own.
-func TestInterpolateOutputsIsPerMatrixCombo(t *testing.T) {
+func TestInterpolateOutputsIsPerMatrixComboKeepingNeedsOutputs(t *testing.T) {
 	job := &model.Job{Outputs: map[string]string{"o": "${{ matrix.v }}"}}
-	run := &model.Run{JobID: "j", Workflow: &model.Workflow{Name: "w", Jobs: map[string]*model.Job{"j": job}}}
+	require.NoError(t, job.RawOutputs.Encode(job.Outputs))
+	needed := &model.Job{Outputs: map[string]string{"o": "from-gitea"}}
+	run := &model.Run{JobID: "j", Workflow: &model.Workflow{Name: "w", Jobs: map[string]*model.Job{"j": job, "needed": needed}}}
 	r := &runnerImpl{config: &Config{}}
 	ctx := context.Background()
 
+	_, err := r.newRunContext(ctx, &model.Run{JobID: "needed", Workflow: run.Workflow}, nil)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
 	rcA, err := r.newRunContext(ctx, run, map[string]any{"v": "a"})
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	rcB, err := r.newRunContext(ctx, run, map[string]any{"v": "b"})
 	require.NoError(t, err)
+	rcEmpty, err := r.newRunContext(ctx, run, map[string]any{"v": ""})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Empty(t, job.Outputs)
 
 	require.NoError(t, rcA.interpolateOutputs()(ctx))
 	require.NoError(t, rcB.interpolateOutputs()(ctx))
+	require.NoError(t, rcEmpty.interpolateOutputs()(ctx))
 
-	// Last combo wins (matching GitHub) instead of being frozen to combo A's "a".
-	require.Equal(t, "b", job.Outputs["o"])
+	require.Equal(t, map[string]string{"o": "b"}, job.Outputs)
+	require.Equal(t, map[string]string{"o": "from-gitea"}, needed.Outputs)
 }
 
 // A whole-value `outputs:` expression only reaches the typed field through DecodeRaw.
@@ -936,6 +953,12 @@ func TestGetGitHubContext(t *testing.T) {
 	assert.Equal(t, ghc.RunnerPerflog, "/dev/null") //nolint:testifylint // pre-existing issue from nektos/act
 	assert.Equal(t, ghc.Token, rc.Config.Secrets["GITHUB_TOKEN"])
 	assert.Equal(t, ghc.Job, "job1") //nolint:testifylint // pre-existing issue from nektos/act
+
+	rc.Config.PresetGitHubContext = &model.GithubContext{Actor: "preset-actor", TriggeringActor: "triggerer", Job: "preset-job"}
+	ghc = rc.getGithubContext(context.Background())
+	assert.Equal(t, "preset-actor", ghc.Actor)
+	assert.Equal(t, "triggerer", ghc.TriggeringActor)
+	assert.Equal(t, "job1", ghc.Job)
 }
 
 func TestGetGithubContextRef(t *testing.T) {
@@ -982,7 +1005,6 @@ func TestGetGithubContextRef(t *testing.T) {
 func createIfTestRunContext(jobs map[string]*model.Job) *RunContext {
 	rc := &RunContext{
 		Config: &Config{Workdir: ".", PlatformPicker: func([]string) string { return "ubuntu-latest" }},
-		Env:    map[string]string{},
 		Run: &model.Run{
 			JobID: "job1",
 			Workflow: &model.Workflow{
@@ -1059,9 +1081,12 @@ func TestRunContextIsEnabled(t *testing.T) {
 	// success()
 	rc := createIfTestRunContext(map[string]*model.Job{
 		"job1": createJob(t, `runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+env:
+  BROKEN: ${{ fromJSON('invalid') }}
 if: success()`, ""),
 	})
 	assertObject.True(rc.isEnabled(context.Background()))
+	require.Error(t, evaluateJobEnvAndDefaults(context.Background(), rc))
 
 	rc = createIfTestRunContext(map[string]*model.Job{
 		"job1": createJob(t, `runs-on: ubuntu-latest`, "failure"),
@@ -1165,6 +1190,13 @@ if: always()`, ""),
 if: false`, ""),
 	})
 	assertObject.False(rc.isEnabled(context.Background()))
+
+	rc = createIfTestRunContext(map[string]*model.Job{
+		"job1": createJob(t, `if: ${{ fromJSON('not-json') }}`, ""),
+	})
+	enabled, err := rc.isEnabled(context.Background())
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assertObject.False(enabled)
 }
 
 func TestRunContextGetEnv(t *testing.T) {
@@ -1289,12 +1321,13 @@ func TestRunContext_cleanupFailedStart(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	for _, testcase := range []struct {
-		name, health string
-		pullError    error
+		name, health          string
+		pullError, startError error
 	}{
 		{name: "healthy", health: container.HealthHealthy},
 		{name: "unhealthy", health: container.HealthUnhealthy},
 		{name: "pull failure", pullError: errors.New("pull failed")},
+		{name: "start failure", startError: errors.New("start failed")},
 	} {
 		t.Run(testcase.name, func(t *testing.T) {
 			var operations []string
@@ -1308,7 +1341,7 @@ func TestRunContext_cleanupFailedStart(t *testing.T) {
 			for name, instance := range map[string]*containerMock{"job": job, "service": service} {
 				instance.On("Pull", true).Return(record(name+".Pull", map[string]error{"job": testcase.pullError}[name]))
 				instance.On("Create", mock.Anything, mock.Anything).Return(record(name+".Create", nil))
-				instance.On("Start", false).Return(record(name+".Start", nil))
+				instance.On("Start", false).Return(record(name+".Start", map[string]error{"service": testcase.startError}[name]))
 				instance.On("Remove").Return(record(name+".Remove", nil))
 				instance.On("Close").Return(record(name+".Close", nil))
 			}
@@ -1319,10 +1352,14 @@ func TestRunContext_cleanupFailedStart(t *testing.T) {
 				service.On("Inspect", mock.Anything).Return(&container.Info{State: "running", Health: health}, nil).
 					Run(func(mock.Arguments) { operations = append(operations, "service.Inspect") }).Once()
 			}
-			service.On("DumpLogs", mock.Anything).Return(nil).
-				Run(func(mock.Arguments) { operations = append(operations, "service.DumpLogs") })
+			stdouts := map[string]io.Writer{}
+			service.On("DumpLogs", mock.Anything).Return(nil).Run(func(mock.Arguments) {
+				operations = append(operations, "service.DumpLogs")
+				fmt.Fprintln(stdouts["postgres:latest"], "::add-mask::leak")
+			})
 			origNewContainer := newContainer
 			newContainer = func(input *container.NewContainerInput) container.ExecutionsEnvironment {
+				stdouts[input.Image] = input.Stdout
 				return map[string]*containerMock{"postgres:latest": service, "node:20": job}[input.Image]
 			}
 			t.Cleanup(func() { newContainer = origNewContainer })
@@ -1333,22 +1370,30 @@ func TestRunContext_cleanupFailedStart(t *testing.T) {
 				Run:           &model.Run{JobID: "job", Workflow: workflow},
 				platformImage: "node:20",
 			}
-			ctx := common.WithDryrun(t.Context(), true)
+			logger, hook := logrustest.NewNullLogger()
+			ctx := common.WithLogger(common.WithDryrun(t.Context(), true), logger)
 			rc.ExprEval = rc.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx)
 			err = rc.startContainer().Then(rc.stopContainer()).Finally(rc.closeContainer())(ctx)
 			want := "job.Remove service.Remove service.Close service.Pull job.Pull"
-			if testcase.pullError != nil {
+			switch {
+			case testcase.pullError != nil:
 				require.ErrorIs(t, err, testcase.pullError)
-			} else {
-				want += " service.Create service.Start service.Inspect job.Create job.Start job.Inspect job.Copy service.Inspect"
+			case testcase.startError != nil:
+				require.ErrorIs(t, err, testcase.startError)
+				want += " service.Create service.Start service.DumpLogs"
+			default:
+				want += " service.Create service.Start service.Inspect job.Create job.Start job.Inspect job.Copy service.Inspect service.DumpLogs"
 				if testcase.health == container.HealthUnhealthy {
 					require.ErrorContains(t, err, "the service 'postgres' is unhealthy")
-					want += " service.DumpLogs"
 				} else {
 					require.NoError(t, err)
 				}
 			}
 			assert.Equal(t, strings.Fields(want+" job.Remove service.Remove service.Close job.Close"), operations)
+			assert.Empty(t, rc.Masks)
+			assert.Equal(t, testcase.pullError == nil && testcase.health != container.HealthUnhealthy, slices.ContainsFunc(hook.AllEntries(), func(entry *log.Entry) bool {
+				return strings.HasPrefix(entry.Message, "::group::Print service container logs")
+			}))
 		})
 	}
 
@@ -1604,12 +1649,42 @@ func TestImageOSFromImage(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+func TestResolvePlatformImageAppliesImagelessContainerToRunsOnImage(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, tc := range []struct {
+		name, image string
+		want        model.ContainerSpec
+	}{
+		{"without image key", "", model.ContainerSpec{Volumes: []string{"/host/data:/data"}, Env: map[string]string{"KEY": "value"}}},
+		{"with empty image", "image: '', ", model.ContainerSpec{}},
+	} {
+		t.Run(tc.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			rc := createIfTestRunContext(map[string]*model.Job{
+				"job1": createJob(t, "runs-on: toolkit\ncontainer: {"+tc.image+"volumes: [/host/data:/data], env: {KEY: value}}", ""),
+			})
+			require.NoError(t, rc.resolvePlatformImage(t.Context()))
+			require.NoError(t, evaluateJobEnvAndDefaults(t.Context(), rc))
+
+			assert.Equal(t, "ubuntu-latest", rc.platformImage)
+			assert.Equal(t, tc.want, rc.containerSpec)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
 func createRunsOnRunContext(t *testing.T, runsOn string) *RunContext {
 	return createIfTestRunContext(map[string]*model.Job{
 		"job1": createJob(t, "runs-on: "+runsOn, ""),
 	})
 }
 
+func TestRunContextContainerImageCannotSelectBackend(t *testing.T) {
+	rc := createIfTestRunContext(map[string]*model.Job{"job1": createJob(t, "container: -self-hosted", "")})
+	require.NoError(t, rc.resolvePlatformImage(t.Context()))
+	assert.False(t, rc.IsHostEnv())
+
+	rc = createIfTestRunContext(map[string]*model.Job{"job1": createJob(t, "runs-on: ${{ fromJSON('x') }}\ncontainer: node", "")})
+	require.ErrorContains(t, rc.resolvePlatformImage(t.Context()), "runs-on")
+}
+
 func TestRunContextImageOS(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
 

act/runner/runner.go

@@ -7,7 +7,6 @@ package runner
 import (
 	"context"
 	"fmt"
-	"maps"
 	"os"
 	"runtime"
 	"sync"
@@ -15,6 +14,7 @@ import (
 
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/common"
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/container"
+	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/ghcontext"
 
 	"gitea.dev/actionslib/pkg/model"
 	docker_container "github.com/moby/moby/api/types/container"
@@ -57,10 +57,12 @@ type Config struct {
 	DisableActEnv                 bool                                          // do not inject the ACT=true environment variable into jobs
 	ContainerNetworkMode          docker_container.NetworkMode                  // the network mode of job containers (the value of --network)
 	ContainerNetworkCreateOptions container.NewDockerNetworkCreateExecutorInput // the default network create options
+	CacheContainer                string                                        // let jobs reach an otherwise isolated cache
 	ProxyEnv                      map[string]string                             // the proxy variables the job runs with, also given to service containers and image builds
 	NoActionPatch                 bool                                          // run actions exactly as published, applying no compatibility patches, see patch_actions.go
 
 	PresetGitHubContext   *model.GithubContext // overrides actor, ref, repository, token and related context fields
+	WorkflowCallInputs    map[string]any       // the `inputs` Gitea resolved for a called workflow's job, nil for other jobs
 	EventJSON             string               // the content of JSON file to use for event.json in containers, overrides EventPath
 	ContainerNamePrefix   string               // the prefix of container name
 	ContainerMaxLifetime  time.Duration        // the max lifetime of job containers
@@ -73,6 +75,7 @@ type Config struct {
 	// AppURL. It is never set for github.com or a GithubMirror, so the token stays on-instance.
 	DefaultActionInstanceIsSelfHosted bool
 	PlatformPicker                    func(labels []string) string
+	KubernetesPicker                  func(labels []string) container.KubernetesOptions
 	JobLoggerLevel                    *log.Level    // the level of job logger
 	ValidVolumes                      []string      // only volumes (and bind mounts) in this slice can be mounted on the job container or service containers
 	SharedToolCache                   bool          // one tool cache for all jobs instead of one per job
@@ -159,9 +162,9 @@ func (runner *runnerImpl) configure() (*runnerImpl, error) {
 func maxParallelFor(strategy *model.Strategy, combinations int) int {
 	maxParallel := 4 // actionslib has no default for an undeclared max-parallel
 	if strategy != nil {
-		if limit, declared, err := strategy.ParseMaxParallel(); err != nil {
+		if limit, err := strategy.MaxParallel(); err != nil {
 			log.Errorf("Ignoring invalid max-parallel: %v", err)
-		} else if declared {
+		} else if limit > 0 {
 			maxParallel = limit
 		}
 	}
@@ -210,7 +213,7 @@ func (runner *runnerImpl) NewPlanExecutor(plan *model.Plan) common.Executor {
 						return err
 					}
 					if job.RawStrategy.Kind == yaml.ScalarNode {
-						if err := decodeDeferred(ctx, strategyRc.ExprEval, "job strategy", job.RawStrategy, &job.Strategy); err != nil {
+						if err := model.DecodeEvaluated("job strategy", job.RawStrategy, strategyRc.ExprEval.shared(ctx).EvaluateYamlNode, &job.Strategy); err != nil {
 							return err
 						}
 					} else {
@@ -222,6 +225,11 @@ func (runner *runnerImpl) NewPlanExecutor(plan *model.Plan) common.Executor {
 						if err := strategyRc.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx).EvaluateYamlNode(ctx, &job.Strategy.RawMatrix); err != nil {
 							log.Errorf("Error while evaluating matrix: %v", err)
 						}
+						for _, value := range []*string{&job.Strategy.FailFastString, &job.Strategy.MaxParallelString} {
+							if evaluated, err := strategyRc.ExprEval.Interpolate(ctx, *value); err == nil {
+								*value = evaluated
+							}
+						}
 					}
 				}
 
@@ -236,7 +244,16 @@ func (runner *runnerImpl) NewPlanExecutor(plan *model.Plan) common.Executor {
 				log.Infof("Running job with maxParallel=%d for %d matrix combinations", maxParallel, len(matrixes))
 
 				for i, matrix := range matrixes {
-					rc, err := runner.newRunContext(ctx, run, matrix)
+					index, total := i, len(matrixes)
+					if runner.caller == nil && runner.config.PresetGitHubContext != nil && len(matrix) > 0 {
+						var expanded struct {
+							Index int `yaml:"job-index"`
+							Total int `yaml:"job-total"`
+						}
+						_ = job.RawStrategy.Decode(&expanded) // Gitea expanded the combination, a version writing neither leaves them unknown
+						index, total = expanded.Index, expanded.Total
+					}
+					rc, err := runner.newCombinationRunContext(ctx, run, matrix, index, total)
 					if err != nil {
 						return err
 					}
@@ -308,7 +325,8 @@ func (runner *runnerImpl) NewPlanExecutor(plan *model.Plan) common.Executor {
 		})
 	}
 
-	return common.NewPipelineExecutor(stagePipeline...).Then(handleFailure(plan))
+	executor := common.NewPipelineExecutor(stagePipeline...).Then(handleFailure(plan))
+	return func(ctx context.Context) error { return executor(ghcontext.WithPinnedCheckout(ctx)) }
 }
 
 func handleFailure(plan *model.Plan) common.Executor {
@@ -325,6 +343,10 @@ func handleFailure(plan *model.Plan) common.Executor {
 }
 
 func (runner *runnerImpl) newRunContext(ctx context.Context, run *model.Run, matrix map[string]any) (*RunContext, error) {
+	return runner.newCombinationRunContext(ctx, run, matrix, 0, 1)
+}
+
+func (runner *runnerImpl) newCombinationRunContext(ctx context.Context, run *model.Run, matrix map[string]any, index, total int) (*RunContext, error) {
 	rc := &RunContext{
 		Config:      runner.config,
 		Run:         run,
@@ -332,16 +354,16 @@ func (runner *runnerImpl) newRunContext(ctx context.Context, run *model.Run, mat
 		StepResults: make(map[string]*model.StepResult),
 		Matrix:      matrix,
 		caller:      runner.caller,
+		jobIndex:    index,
+		jobTotal:    total,
 	}
 	if err := rc.resolveWorkflowCall(ctx); err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
 	rc.ExprEval = rc.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx)
 	rc.Name = rc.maskSecrets(rc.ExprEval.InterpolateName(ctx, run.String()))
-	// Snapshot the job's pristine output expressions now, before any matrix combo runs and
-	// rewrites the shared Job.Outputs (see interpolateOutputs).
-	if job := run.Job(); job != nil {
-		rc.outputTemplate = maps.Clone(job.Outputs)
+	if job := run.Job(); job != nil && job.RawOutputs.Kind != 0 {
+		job.Outputs = nil // a job no combination ran for reads "" as on GitHub, a Gitea needs placeholder has no RawOutputs and keeps its outputs
 	}
 
 	return rc, nil

act/runner/runner_test.go

@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@ package runner
 import (
 	"bytes"
 	"context"
+	"crypto/rand"
 	"fmt"
 	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
@@ -29,6 +30,7 @@ var (
 	logLevel  = log.DebugLevel
 	workdir   = "testdata"
 	secrets   map[string]string
+	testRunID = strings.ToLower(rand.Text()[:8]) // keeps docker names apart from concurrent test processes on one daemon
 )
 
 func mapPlatformPicker(platforms map[string]string) func([]string) string {
@@ -216,10 +218,9 @@ func (j *TestJobFileInfo) runTest(ctx context.Context, t *testing.T, cfg *Config
 		EventPath:      cfg.EventPath,
 		PlatformPicker: mapPlatformPicker(j.platforms),
 		// fixtures reuse workflow and job names, so parallel tests would collide without this
-		ContainerNamePrefix: strings.ReplaceAll(t.Name(), "/", "-"),
+		ContainerNamePrefix: strings.ReplaceAll(t.Name(), "/", "-") + "-" + testRunID,
 		// 0 would run jobs runtime.NumCPU()-wide, making the network peak machine-dependent
 		MaxParallel:           2,
-		ForceRebuild:          true,
 		Env:                   cfg.Env,
 		Secrets:               cfg.Secrets,
 		GitHubInstance:        "github.com",
@@ -346,7 +347,7 @@ func TestRunEvent(t *testing.T) {
 
 			config := &Config{
 				Secrets: table.secrets,
-				Env:     map[string]string{"GITHUB_REPOSITORY": t.Name()},
+				Env:     map[string]string{"GITHUB_REPOSITORY": t.Name() + "-" + testRunID},
 			}
 
 			eventFile := filepath.Join(workdir, table.workflowPath, "event.json")
@@ -432,6 +433,9 @@ func TestRunEventHostEnvironment(t *testing.T) {
 
 		tables = append(tables, []TestJobFileInfo{
 			{workdir, "nix-prepend-path", "push", "", platforms, secrets},
+			{workdir, "uses-docker-url", "push", "", platforms, secrets},
+			{workdir, "local-action-dockerfile", "push", "", platforms, secrets},
+			{workdir, "builtin-checkout", "push", "", platforms, secrets},
 			{workdir, "inputs-via-env-context", "push", "", platforms, secrets},
 			{workdir, "do-not-leak-step-env-in-composite", "push", "", platforms, secrets},
 			{workdir, "set-env-step-env-override", "push", "", platforms, secrets},
@@ -448,6 +452,8 @@ func TestRunEventHostEnvironment(t *testing.T) {
 				requireHostTools(t, "pwsh")
 			case "nix-prepend-path":
 				requireHostTools(t, "nix")
+			case "uses-docker-url", "local-action-dockerfile":
+				requireDockerSharingFiles(t)
 			}
 			t.Parallel()
 			hostPlanSlots <- struct{}{}

act/runner/step.go

@@ -11,15 +11,14 @@ import (
 	"path"
 	"strconv"
 	"strings"
-	"sync"
 	"time"
 
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/common"
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/container"
+	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/telemetry"
 
 	"gitea.dev/actionslib/pkg/exprparser"
 	"gitea.dev/actionslib/pkg/model"
-	"go.yaml.in/yaml/v4"
 )
 
 type step interface {
@@ -67,28 +66,34 @@ func processRunnerEnvFileCommand(ctx context.Context, fileName string, rc *RunCo
 }
 
 func runStepExecutor(step step, stage stepStage, executor common.Executor) common.Executor {
-	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
+	return func(ctx context.Context) (err error) {
 		logger := common.Logger(ctx)
 		rc := step.getRunContext()
 		stepModel := step.getStepModel()
 
-		ifExpression := step.getIfExpression(ctx, stage)
-		rc.CurrentStep = stepModel.ID
-
 		stepResult := &model.StepResult{
 			Outcome:    model.StepStatusSuccess,
 			Conclusion: model.StepStatusSuccess,
 			Outputs:    make(map[string]string),
 		}
+		ctx, endStep := telemetry.StartStep(ctx, stepModel, stage.String())
+		defer func() { endStep(err, stepResult) }()
+
+		ifExpression := step.getIfExpression(ctx, stage)
+		rc.CurrentStep = stepModel.ID
+
 		if stage == stepStageMain {
 			rc.StepResults[rc.CurrentStep] = stepResult
 		}
 
-		err := setupEnv(ctx, step)
+		err = setupEnv(ctx, step)
 		var runStep bool
 		if err == nil {
 			runStep, err = isStepEnabled(ctx, ifExpression, step, stage)
 		}
+		if err == nil && runStep {
+			err = setupInputs(ctx, step)
+		}
 		if err != nil {
 			stepResult.Conclusion = model.StepStatusFailure
 			stepResult.Outcome = model.StepStatusFailure
@@ -240,51 +245,39 @@ func setupEnv(ctx context.Context, step step) error {
 	rc := step.getRunContext()
 
 	mergeEnv(ctx, step)
-	// merge step env last, since it should not be overwritten
-	mergeIntoMap(step, step.getEnv(), step.getStepModel().GetEnv())
 
 	var err error
 	exprEval := rc.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx)
-	for k, v := range *step.getEnv() {
-		if !strings.HasPrefix(k, "INPUT_") {
-			if (*step.getEnv())[k], err = exprEval.Interpolate(ctx, v); err != nil {
-				return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate env %s: %w", k, err)
-			}
+	stepEnv := step.getStepModel().Environment()
+	for k, v := range stepEnv {
+		if stepEnv[k], err = exprEval.Interpolate(ctx, v); err != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate env %s: %w", k, err)
 		}
 	}
-	// after we have an evaluated step context, update the expressions evaluator with a new env context
-	// you can use step level env in the with property of a uses construct
-	inputEval := sync.OnceValue(func() *expressionEvaluator { return rc.NewExpressionEvaluatorWithEnv(ctx, *step.getEnv()) })
-	for k, v := range *step.getEnv() {
-		if strings.HasPrefix(k, "INPUT_") {
-			if (*step.getEnv())[k], err = inputEval().Interpolate(ctx, v); err != nil {
-				return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate env %s: %w", k, err)
-			}
-		}
+	// merge step env last, since it should not be overwritten
+	mergeIntoMap(step, step.getEnv(), stepEnv)
+	return nil
+}
+
+// setupInputs evaluates `with` once the condition passed, as GitHub does, so every consumer reads the evaluated With.
+func setupInputs(ctx context.Context, step step) error {
+	stepModel := step.getStepModel()
+	if stepModel.RawWith.Kind == 0 {
+		return nil
 	}
-	if step.getStepModel().RawWith.Kind == yaml.ScalarNode {
-		decoded := &model.Step{}
-		if err := decodeDeferred(ctx, inputEval(), "with", step.getStepModel().RawWith, &decoded.With); err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
-		step.getStepModel().With = decoded.With
-		mergeIntoMap(step, step.getEnv(), decoded.GetEnv())
+	if err := model.DecodeEvaluated("with", stepModel.RawWith, step.getRunContext().NewStepExpressionEvaluator(ctx, step).shared(ctx).EvaluateYamlNode, &stepModel.With); err != nil {
+		return err
 	}
+	mergeIntoMap(step, step.getEnv(), (&model.Step{With: stepModel.With}).GetEnv())
 	return nil
 }
 
 func mergeEnv(ctx context.Context, step step) {
 	env := step.getEnv()
 	rc := step.getRunContext()
-	job := rc.Run.Job()
 
-	c := job.Container()
-	if c != nil {
-		// container env is the image's baseline, which job env and $GITHUB_ENV override
-		mergeIntoMap(step, env, c.Env, rc.GetEnv())
-	} else {
-		mergeIntoMap(step, env, rc.GetEnv())
-	}
+	// container env is the image's baseline, which job env and $GITHUB_ENV override
+	mergeIntoMap(step, env, rc.containerSpec.Env, rc.GetEnv())
 
 	rc.withGithubEnv(ctx, step.getGithubContext(ctx), *env)
 }
@@ -299,7 +292,12 @@ func isStepEnabled(ctx context.Context, expr string, step step, stage stepStage)
 		defaultStatusCheck = exprparser.DefaultStatusCheckSuccess
 	}
 
-	runStep, err := EvalBool(ctx, rc.NewStepExpressionEvaluator(ctx, step), expr, defaultStatusCheck)
+	// success() and failure() in a composite's own main steps read the composite's result, other stages the job's
+	jobContext := rc.getJobContext()
+	if rc.Parent != nil && stage == stepStageMain && jobContext.Status != "cancelled" {
+		jobContext.Status = rc.ownStatus()
+	}
+	runStep, err := EvalBool(ctx, rc.newStepExpressionEvaluator(ctx, step, rc.actionInputs, jobContext), expr, defaultStatusCheck)
 	if err != nil {
 		return false, fmt.Errorf("if-expression %q evaluation failed: %s", expr, err)
 	}

act/runner/step_action_builtin.go

@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+// Copyright 2026 The Gitea Authors. All rights reserved.
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+
+package runner
+
+import (
+	"context"
+
+	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/common"
+	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/action"
+	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/action/checkout"
+
+	"gitea.dev/actionslib/pkg/model"
+)
+
+var builtinActions = map[string]func(context.Context, *action.Context) error{
+	"checkout": checkout.Main,
+}
+
+type stepActionBuiltin struct {
+	Step       *model.Step
+	RunContext *RunContext
+	run        func(context.Context, *action.Context) error
+	env        map[string]string
+}
+
+func (sab *stepActionBuiltin) pre() common.Executor { return common.NewPipelineExecutor() }
+
+func (sab *stepActionBuiltin) main() common.Executor {
+	sab.env = map[string]string{}
+	return runStepExecutor(sab, stepStageMain, func(ctx context.Context) error {
+		if common.Dryrun(ctx) {
+			return nil
+		}
+
+		printRunActionHeader(ctx, sab.Step, sab.env, sab.RunContext)
+		rawLogger := common.Logger(ctx).WithField(rawOutputField, true)
+		defer rawLogger.Infof("::endgroup::")
+
+		rc := sab.RunContext
+		return sab.run(ctx, &action.Context{
+			Container:       rc.JobContainer,
+			Github:          rc.getGithubContext(ctx),
+			Inputs:          sab.Step.With,
+			HostWorkdir:     rc.Config.Workdir,
+			Workspace:       rc.JobContainer.ToContainerPath(rc.Config.Workdir),
+			BindWorkdir:     rc.Config.BindWorkdir,
+			NoSkipCheckout:  rc.Config.NoSkipCheckout,
+			UseGitIgnore:    rc.Config.UseGitIgnore,
+			InsecureSkipTLS: rc.Config.InsecureSkipTLS,
+		})
+	})
+}
+
+func (sab *stepActionBuiltin) post() common.Executor { return common.NewPipelineExecutor() }
+
+func (sab *stepActionBuiltin) getRunContext() *RunContext { return sab.RunContext }
+
+func (sab *stepActionBuiltin) getGithubContext(ctx context.Context) *model.GithubContext {
+	return sab.RunContext.getGithubContext(ctx)
+}
+
+func (sab *stepActionBuiltin) getStepModel() *model.Step { return sab.Step }
+
+func (sab *stepActionBuiltin) getEnv() *map[string]string { return &sab.env }
+
+func (sab *stepActionBuiltin) getIfExpression(_ context.Context, _ stepStage) string {
+	return sab.Step.If.Value
+}

act/runner/step_action_local.go

@@ -61,11 +61,14 @@ func (sal *stepActionLocal) main() common.Executor {
 				treader := tar.NewReader(tars)
 				header, err := treader.Next()
 				if errors.Is(err, io.EOF) {
+					tars.Close()
 					return nil, nil, os.ErrNotExist
 				} else if err != nil {
+					tars.Close()
 					return nil, nil, err
 				}
 				if header.FileInfo().Mode()&os.ModeSymlink == os.ModeSymlink {
+					tars.Close()
 					spath, err = symlinkJoin(spath, header.Linkname, containerActionPath)
 					if err != nil {
 						return nil, nil, err

act/runner/step_action_remote.go

@@ -12,7 +12,6 @@ import (
 	"os"
 	"path"
 	"path/filepath"
-	"regexp"
 	"strings"
 
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/common"
@@ -58,13 +57,8 @@ func (sar *stepActionRemote) prepareActionExecutor() common.Executor {
 		sar.Step.Uses = uses
 
 		github := sar.getGithubContext(ctx) // read before remoteAction is set, so `$/` resolves against the enclosing action
-		if strings.HasPrefix(sar.Step.Uses, selfRepoPrefix) {
-			sar.remoteAction = newSelfRepoAction(sar.Step.Uses, github)
-		} else {
-			sar.remoteAction = newRemoteAction(sar.Step.Uses)
-		}
-		if sar.remoteAction == nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("expected format {org}/{repo}[/path]@ref or %s{path}. Actual '%s' Input string was not in a correct format", selfRepoPrefix, sar.Step.Uses)
+		if sar.remoteAction, err = newRemoteAction(sar.Step.Uses, github, sar.RunContext.Config.GitHubInstance); err != nil {
+			return err
 		}
 
 		if sar.remoteAction.IsCheckout() && isLocalCheckout(github, sar.Step) && !sar.RunContext.Config.NoSkipCheckout {
@@ -164,11 +158,7 @@ func (sar *stepActionRemote) main() common.Executor {
 					common.Logger(ctx).Debugf("Skipping local actions/checkout because you bound your workspace")
 					return nil
 				}
-				checkoutPath, err := sar.RunContext.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx).Interpolate(ctx, sar.Step.With["path"])
-				if err != nil {
-					return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate with.path: %w", err)
-				}
-				copyToPath := path.Join(sar.RunContext.JobContainer.ToContainerPath(sar.RunContext.Config.Workdir), checkoutPath)
+				copyToPath := path.Join(sar.RunContext.JobContainer.ToContainerPath(sar.RunContext.Config.Workdir), sar.Step.With["path"])
 				return sar.RunContext.JobContainer.CopyDir(copyToPath, sar.RunContext.Config.Workdir+string(filepath.Separator)+".", sar.RunContext.Config.UseGitIgnore, false)(ctx)
 			}
 
@@ -324,61 +314,34 @@ func (ra *remoteAction) IsCheckout() bool {
 	return false
 }
 
-// newSelfRepoAction resolves `$/{path}` against the enclosing composite action, falling back to the workflow's own repo and commit.
-func newSelfRepoAction(action string, github *model.GithubContext) *remoteAction {
-	subPath := strings.TrimLeft(strings.TrimPrefix(action, selfRepoPrefix), "/")
-	if subPath == "" || strings.Contains(subPath, "@") || path.Clean("/"+subPath) != "/"+subPath { // rooted, so a leading ".." is rejected too
-		return nil
+// newRemoteAction resolves `self:` on instanceURL and `$/` in the enclosing composite action, else the workflow's repo and commit.
+func newRemoteAction(action string, github *model.GithubContext, instanceURL string) (*remoteAction, error) {
+	uses, err := model.ParseActionUses(action)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
 	}
-	repo, ref := github.ActionRepository, github.ActionRef
-	if repo == "" || ref == "" {
-		repo, ref = github.Repository, github.Sha
-	}
-	org, name, _ := strings.Cut(repo, "/")
-	if org == "" || name == "" || ref == "" {
-		return nil
-	}
-	return &remoteAction{URL: github.ServerURL, Org: org, Repo: name, Path: subPath, Ref: ref}
-}
-
-func newRemoteAction(action string) *remoteAction {
-	// support http(s)://host/owner/repo@v3
-	for _, schema := range []string{"https://", "http://", "ssh://"} {
-		if after, ok := strings.CutPrefix(action, schema); ok {
-			splits := strings.SplitN(after, "/", 2)
-			if len(splits) != 2 {
-				return nil
-			}
-			ret := parseAction(splits[1])
-			if ret == nil {
-				return nil
-			}
-			ret.URL = schema + splits[0]
-			return ret
+	ra := &remoteAction{URL: uses.URL, Org: uses.Owner, Repo: uses.Repo, Path: uses.Path, Ref: uses.Ref}
+	switch uses.Kind {
+	case model.ActionUsesInstance:
+		if instanceURL == "" {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("unable to resolve %q without a Gitea instance", action)
+		}
+		ra.URL = instanceURL
+		if !strings.Contains(instanceURL, "://") {
+			ra.URL = "https://" + instanceURL
+		}
+	case model.ActionUsesSelfRepo:
+		repo, ref := github.ActionRepository, github.ActionRef
+		if repo == "" || ref == "" {
+			repo, ref = github.Repository, github.Sha
+		}
+		ra.Org, ra.Repo, _ = strings.Cut(repo, "/")
+		ra.URL, ra.Ref = github.ServerURL, ref
+		if ra.Org == "" || ra.Repo == "" || ra.Ref == "" {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("unable to resolve %q without a repository and commit", action)
 		}
 	}
-
-	return parseAction(action)
-}
-
-func parseAction(action string) *remoteAction {
-	// GitHub's document[^] describes:
-	// > We strongly recommend that you include the version of
-	// > the action you are using by specifying a Git ref, SHA, or Docker tag number.
-	// Actually, the workflow stops if there is the uses directive that hasn't @ref.
-	// [^]: https://docs.github.com/en/actions/reference/workflow-syntax-for-github-actions
-	r := regexp.MustCompile(`^([^/@]+)/([^/@]+)(/([^@]*))?(@(.*))?$`)
-	matches := r.FindStringSubmatch(action)
-	if len(matches) < 7 || matches[6] == "" {
-		return nil
-	}
-	return &remoteAction{
-		Org:  matches[1],
-		Repo: matches[2],
-		Path: matches[4],
-		Ref:  matches[6],
-		URL:  "",
-	}
+	return ra, nil
 }
 
 func safeFilename(s string) string {

act/runner/step_action_remote_test.go

@@ -216,7 +216,7 @@ func TestStepActionRemote(t *testing.T) {
 				sarm.On("readAction", sar.Step, actionDirSuffix(sar.Step.UsesHash()), "", mock.Anything, mock.Anything).Return(&model.Action{}, nil)
 			}
 			if tt.mocks.run {
-				sarm.On("runAction", sar, actionDirSuffix(sar.Step.UsesHash()), newRemoteAction(sar.Step.Uses)).Return(func(ctx context.Context) error { return tt.runError })
+				sarm.On("runAction", sar, actionDirSuffix(sar.Step.UsesHash()), mustNewRemoteAction(t, sar.Step.Uses)).Return(func(ctx context.Context) error { return tt.runError })
 
 				cm.On("Copy", "/var/run/act", mock.AnythingOfType("[]*container.FileEntry")).Return(noopExecutor)
 
@@ -249,7 +249,7 @@ func TestStepActionRemote(t *testing.T) {
 			RunContext:   &RunContext{Config: &Config{ActionCacheDir: t.TempDir()}, Run: &model.Run{JobID: "job", Workflow: &model.Workflow{Jobs: map[string]*model.Job{"job": {}}}}, JobContainer: &jobContainerMock{}},
 			action:       &model.Action{Inputs: map[string]model.Input{"shared": {}}},
 			env:          map[string]string{},
-			remoteAction: newRemoteAction("org/composite@v1"),
+			remoteAction: mustNewRemoteAction(t, "org/composite@v1"),
 		}
 
 		for _, value := range []string{"first", "second"} {
@@ -464,7 +464,7 @@ func TestStepActionRemotePost(t *testing.T) {
 				Step:   tt.stepModel,
 				action: tt.actionModel,
 				// post only ever runs after prepareActionExecutor resolved the action
-				remoteAction: newRemoteAction(tt.stepModel.Uses),
+				remoteAction: mustNewRemoteAction(t, tt.stepModel.Uses),
 			}
 			sar.RunContext.ExprEval = sar.RunContext.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx)
 
@@ -611,10 +611,21 @@ func Test_newRemoteAction(t *testing.T) {
 			action: "ssh://gitea.com/onlyonesegment@main", // missing org/repo after the host
 			want:   nil,
 		},
+		{
+			action: "self:owner/repo/sub@v1",
+			want: &remoteAction{
+				URL:  "https://gitea.example.com",
+				Org:  "owner",
+				Repo: "repo",
+				Path: "sub",
+				Ref:  "v1",
+			},
+			wantCloneURL: "https://gitea.example.com/owner/repo",
+		},
 	}
 	for _, tt := range tests {
 		t.Run(tt.action, func(t *testing.T) {
-			got := newRemoteAction(tt.action)
+			got, _ := newRemoteAction(tt.action, nil, "gitea.example.com")
 			assert.Equalf(t, tt.want, got, "newRemoteAction(%v)", tt.action)
 			cloneURL := ""
 			if got != nil {
@@ -623,9 +634,18 @@ func Test_newRemoteAction(t *testing.T) {
 			assert.Equalf(t, tt.wantCloneURL, cloneURL, "newRemoteAction(%v).CloneURL()", tt.action)
 		})
 	}
+	_, err := newRemoteAction("self:owner/repo@v1", nil, "")
+	require.ErrorContains(t, err, "without a Gitea instance")
 }
 
-func Test_newSelfRepoAction(t *testing.T) {
+func mustNewRemoteAction(t *testing.T, uses string) *remoteAction {
+	t.Helper()
+	action, err := newRemoteAction(uses, nil, "")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	return action
+}
+
+func Test_newRemoteActionSelfRepo(t *testing.T) {
 	workflow := &model.GithubContext{
 		ServerURL:  "https://gitea.example.com",
 		Repository: "owner/workflow-repo",
@@ -674,7 +694,8 @@ func Test_newSelfRepoAction(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 	for _, tt := range tests {
 		t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
-			assert.Equal(t, tt.want, newSelfRepoAction(tt.action, tt.github))
+			got, _ := newRemoteAction(tt.action, tt.github, "")
+			assert.Equal(t, tt.want, got)
 		})
 	}
 }
@@ -704,7 +725,7 @@ func Test_remoteActionReference(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 	for _, tt := range tests {
 		t.Run(tt.uses, func(t *testing.T) {
-			assert.Equal(t, tt.want, newRemoteAction(tt.uses).Reference())
+			assert.Equal(t, tt.want, mustNewRemoteAction(t, tt.uses).Reference())
 		})
 	}
 }
@@ -761,7 +782,7 @@ func TestStepActionRemotePreResolvesDownloadedCommit(t *testing.T) {
 func TestStepActionRemoteActionDownloadInfo(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Run("reports the action and its resolved commit", func(t *testing.T) {
 		sar := &stepActionRemote{
-			remoteAction: newRemoteAction("actions/checkout@v7"),
+			remoteAction: mustNewRemoteAction(t, "actions/checkout@v7"),
 			action:       &model.Action{},
 			resolvedSha:  "9c091bb21b7c1c1d1991bb908d89e4e9dddfe3e0",
 		}
@@ -775,7 +796,7 @@ func TestStepActionRemoteActionDownloadInfo(t *testing.T) {
 
 	t.Run("reports nothing when no action was downloaded", func(t *testing.T) {
 		// The local checkout of the workflow's own repository resolves no action.
-		sar := &stepActionRemote{remoteAction: newRemoteAction("actions/checkout@v7")}
+		sar := &stepActionRemote{remoteAction: mustNewRemoteAction(t, "actions/checkout@v7")}
 
 		_, _, ok := sar.actionDownloadInfo()
 

act/runner/step_docker.go

@@ -6,7 +6,6 @@ package runner
 
 import (
 	"context"
-	"fmt"
 	"strings"
 
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/common"
@@ -57,30 +56,21 @@ func (sd *stepDocker) runUsesContainer() common.Executor {
 	step := sd.Step
 
 	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
-		image := strings.TrimPrefix(step.Uses, "docker://")
-		eval := rc.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx)
-		args, err := eval.Interpolate(ctx, step.With["args"])
-		if err != nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate with.args: %w", err)
+		if rc.kubernetes {
+			return errKubernetesDocker
 		}
-		cmd, err := shellquote.Split(args)
+		image := strings.TrimPrefix(step.Uses, "docker://")
+		cmd, err := shellquote.Split(step.With["args"])
 		if err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
 
 		var entrypoint []string
-		entry, err := eval.Interpolate(ctx, step.With["entrypoint"])
-		if err != nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate with.entrypoint: %w", err)
-		}
-		if entry != "" {
+		if entry := step.With["entrypoint"]; entry != "" {
 			entrypoint = []string{entry}
 		}
 
-		stepContainer, err := newStepContainer(ctx, sd, image, cmd, entrypoint, "")
-		if err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
+		stepContainer := newStepContainer(ctx, sd, image, cmd, entrypoint, "")
 
 		return common.NewPipelineExecutor(
 			stepContainer.Pull(rc.Config.ForcePull),

act/runner/step_docker_test.go

@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ import (
 	"bytes"
 	"context"
 	"io"
+	"slices"
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
 
@@ -145,28 +146,41 @@ func TestStepDockerNewStepContainerAllocatePTY(t *testing.T) {
 			}
 			sd.RunContext.ExprEval = sd.RunContext.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx)
 
-			_, _ = newStepContainer(ctx, sd, "node:14", []string{"echo", "hi"}, nil, "")
+			newStepContainer(ctx, sd, "node:14", []string{"echo", "hi"}, nil, "")
 			assert.Equal(t, tc.allocPTY, captured.AllocatePTY)
 		})
 	}
 }
 
-func TestStepDockerNewStepContainerNetworkMode(t *testing.T) {
+func TestStepDockerNewStepContainerNetworkModeAndPath(t *testing.T) {
+	inheritedPath := (&container.LinuxContainerEnvironmentExtensions{}).DefaultPathVariable()
 	cases := []struct {
 		name          string
 		platform      string
+		path          string
 		expectDefault bool
+		keepsPath     bool
 	}{
 		{
 			name:          "docker mode attaches to job container network",
 			platform:      "node:14",
+			path:          inheritedPath,
 			expectDefault: false,
+			keepsPath:     true,
 		},
 		{
-			name:          "host mode uses default network",
+			name:          "host mode uses default network and the image's PATH",
 			platform:      "-self-hosted",
+			path:          inheritedPath,
 			expectDefault: true,
 		},
+		{
+			name:          "host mode keeps a PATH that is not the runner's",
+			platform:      "-self-hosted",
+			path:          "/custom/bin",
+			expectDefault: true,
+			keepsPath:     true,
+		},
 	}
 
 	for _, tc := range cases {
@@ -208,13 +222,15 @@ func TestStepDockerNewStepContainerNetworkMode(t *testing.T) {
 					ID:   "1",
 					Uses: "docker://alpine:3.20",
 				},
+				env: map[string]string{"PATH": tc.path},
 			}
 			sd.RunContext.ExprEval = sd.RunContext.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx)
 
 			require.NoError(t, sd.RunContext.resolvePlatformImage(ctx))
 			assert.Equal(t, tc.expectDefault, sd.RunContext.IsHostEnv(), "IsHostEnv mismatch for platform %q", tc.platform)
 
-			_, _ = newStepContainer(ctx, sd, "alpine:3.20", []string{"echo", "hello"}, nil, "")
+			newStepContainer(ctx, sd, "alpine:3.20", []string{"echo", "hello"}, nil, "")
+			assert.Equal(t, tc.keepsPath, slices.Contains(captured.Env, "PATH="+tc.path))
 
 			if tc.expectDefault {
 				assert.Equal(t, "default", captured.NetworkMode,

act/runner/step_factory.go

@@ -6,6 +6,9 @@ package runner
 
 import (
 	"fmt"
+	"maps"
+	"slices"
+	"strings"
 
 	"gitea.dev/actionslib/pkg/model"
 )
@@ -33,6 +36,18 @@ func (sf *stepFactoryImpl) newStep(stepModel *model.Step, rc *RunContext) (step,
 			runAction:  runActionImpl,
 		}, nil
 	case model.StepTypeUsesActionRemote:
+		if name, ok := strings.CutPrefix(stepModel.Uses, "builtin:"); ok {
+			run, ok := builtinActions[name]
+			if !ok {
+				return nil, fmt.Errorf("unknown built-in action %q (known: %v) for job:%s step:%+v",
+					name, slices.Sorted(maps.Keys(builtinActions)), rc.Run, stepModel)
+			}
+			return &stepActionBuiltin{
+				Step:       stepModel,
+				RunContext: rc,
+				run:        run,
+			}, nil
+		}
 		return &stepActionRemote{
 			Step:       stepModel,
 			RunContext: rc,

act/runner/step_factory_test.go

@@ -57,6 +57,16 @@ func TestStepFactoryNewStep(t *testing.T) {
 				return ok
 			},
 		},
+		{
+			name: "StepBuiltinAction",
+			model: &model.Step{
+				Uses: "builtin:checkout",
+			},
+			check: func(s step) bool {
+				_, ok := s.(*stepActionBuiltin)
+				return ok
+			},
+		},
 	}
 
 	for _, tt := range table {
@@ -72,14 +82,11 @@ func TestStepFactoryNewStep(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestStepFactoryInvalidStep(t *testing.T) {
-	model := &model.Step{
-		Uses: "remote/action@v1",
-		Run:  "cmd",
+	for _, stepModel := range []*model.Step{
+		{Uses: "remote/action@v1", Run: "cmd"},
+		{Uses: "builtin:unknown"},
+	} {
+		_, err := (&stepFactoryImpl{}).newStep(stepModel, &RunContext{})
+		assert.Error(t, err, stepModel.Uses)
 	}
-
-	sf := &stepFactoryImpl{}
-
-	_, err := sf.newStep(model, &RunContext{})
-
-	assert.Error(t, err)
 }

act/runner/step_test.go

@@ -13,13 +13,19 @@ import (
 
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/common"
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/container"
+	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/telemetry"
 
 	"gitea.dev/actionslib/pkg/model"
+	runnerv1 "gitea.dev/actionslib/runner/v1"
 	log "github.com/sirupsen/logrus"
 	logrustest "github.com/sirupsen/logrus/hooks/test"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/mock"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+	sdktrace "go.opentelemetry.io/otel/sdk/trace"
+	"go.opentelemetry.io/otel/sdk/trace/tracetest"
+	semconv "go.opentelemetry.io/otel/semconv/v1.43.0"
+	tracenoop "go.opentelemetry.io/otel/trace/noop"
 	yaml "go.yaml.in/yaml/v4"
 )
 
@@ -149,11 +155,8 @@ func TestSetupEnv(t *testing.T) {
 		},
 		JobContainer: cm,
 	}
-	step := &model.Step{
-		With: map[string]string{
-			"STEP_WITH": "with-value",
-		},
-	}
+	step := &model.Step{}
+	require.NoError(t, step.RawWith.Encode(map[string]string{"STEP_WITH": "with-value", "ID": "${{ fromJSON('1234567') }}"}))
 	env := map[string]string{}
 
 	sm.On("getRunContext").Return(rc)
@@ -162,6 +165,7 @@ func TestSetupEnv(t *testing.T) {
 	sm.On("getEnv").Return(&env)
 
 	require.NoError(t, setupEnv(context.Background(), sm))
+	require.NoError(t, setupInputs(context.Background(), sm))
 
 	// These are commit or system specific
 	delete(env, "GITHUB_REF")
@@ -198,6 +202,7 @@ func TestSetupEnv(t *testing.T) {
 		"GITHUB_RUN_NUMBER":        "1",
 		"GITHUB_SERVER_URL":        "https://",
 		"GITHUB_WORKFLOW":          "",
+		"INPUT_ID":                 "1234567",
 		"INPUT_STEP_WITH":          "with-value",
 		"RC_KEY":                   "rcvalue",
 		"RUNNER_ENVIRONMENT":       "self-hosted",
@@ -214,7 +219,13 @@ env: ${{ fromJSON(matrix.env) }}
 jobs:
   test:
     env:
-      PRIORITY: job
+      PRIORITY: ${{ matrix.priority }}
+    defaults:
+      run: ${{ fromJSON(matrix.defaults) }}
+    container:
+      image: node:20
+      env:
+        CONTAINER: ${{ env.PRIORITY }}
     steps:
       - uses: ./act
         env:
@@ -228,16 +239,22 @@ jobs:
 			for _, value := range []string{"first", "second"} {
 				t.Run(value, func(t *testing.T) {
 					t.Parallel()
-					rc, err := (&runnerImpl{config: &Config{}}).newRunContext(t.Context(), &model.Run{Workflow: workflow, JobID: "test"}, map[string]any{"env": `{"WORKFLOW":"` + value + `","PRIORITY":"workflow"}`})
+					rc, err := (&runnerImpl{config: &Config{}}).newRunContext(t.Context(), &model.Run{Workflow: workflow, JobID: "test"}, map[string]any{"env": `{"WORKFLOW":"` + value + `${{ github.job }}","PRIORITY":"workflow"}`, "priority": "${{ github.job }}", "defaults": `{"shell":"` + value + `"}`})
 					require.NoError(t, err)
-					rc.workflowCallInputs = map[string]any{"args": `{"name":"` + value + `","fetch-depth":2}`}
+					rc.workflowCallInputs = map[string]any{"args": `{"name":"` + value + `${{ github.job }}","fetch-depth":1234567}`}
+					enabled, err := rc.isEnabled(t.Context())
+					require.NoError(t, err)
+					require.True(t, enabled)
 					require.NoError(t, evaluateJobEnvAndDefaults(t.Context(), rc))
+					assert.Equal(t, model.RunDefaults{Shell: value}, rc.jobRunDefaults)
 					step := &stepRun{RunContext: rc, Step: job.Steps[0].Clone(), env: map[string]string{}}
 					require.NoError(t, setupEnv(t.Context(), step))
-					assert.Equal(t, map[string]string{"ARGS": `${{ inputs.args }}`, "INPUT_NAME": value, "INPUT_FETCH-DEPTH": "2"}, step.Step.GetEnv())
-					assert.Equal(t, value, step.env["INPUT_NAME"])
-					assert.Equal(t, value, step.env["WORKFLOW"])
-					assert.Equal(t, "job", step.env["PRIORITY"])
+					require.NoError(t, setupInputs(t.Context(), step))
+					assert.Equal(t, map[string]string{"ARGS": `${{ inputs.args }}`, "INPUT_NAME": value + "${{ github.job }}", "INPUT_FETCH-DEPTH": "1234567"}, step.Step.GetEnv())
+					assert.Equal(t, value+"${{ github.job }}", step.env["INPUT_NAME"])
+					assert.Equal(t, value+"${{ github.job }}", step.env["WORKFLOW"])
+					assert.Equal(t, "${{ github.job }}", step.env["PRIORITY"])
+					assert.Equal(t, "${{ github.job }}", step.env["CONTAINER"])
 					assert.Equal(t, rawEnv, workflow.RawEnv)
 					assert.Equal(t, rawWith, job.Steps[0].RawWith)
 					assert.Nil(t, workflow.Env)
@@ -253,7 +270,7 @@ jobs:
 		rc, err := (&runnerImpl{config: &Config{}}).newRunContext(t.Context(), &model.Run{Workflow: workflow, JobID: "test"}, nil)
 		require.NoError(t, err)
 		rc.workflowCallInputs = map[string]any{"args": "${{ inputs.unresolved }}"}
-		require.ErrorContains(t, setupEnv(t.Context(), &stepRun{RunContext: rc, Step: workflow.Jobs["test"].Steps[0].Clone(), env: map[string]string{}}), "with:")
+		require.ErrorContains(t, setupInputs(t.Context(), &stepRun{RunContext: rc, Step: workflow.Jobs["test"].Steps[0].Clone(), env: map[string]string{}}), "with:")
 	})
 }
 
@@ -536,6 +553,29 @@ func TestRunStepExecutorParity(t *testing.T) {
 		assert.Equal(t, "child", childRC.IntraActionState[child.Step.ID]["saved"])
 	})
 
+	t.Run("stages and composite steps are traced under Gitea's step names", func(t *testing.T) {
+		spans := tracetest.NewSpanRecorder()
+		telemetry.SetTracerProvider(sdktrace.NewTracerProvider(sdktrace.WithSpanProcessor(spans)))
+		t.Cleanup(func() { telemetry.SetTracerProvider(tracenoop.NewTracerProvider()) })
+		ctx, _ := telemetry.StartJob(t.Context(), &runnerv1.Task{Id: 7})
+		outer := newStep(t, &model.Step{ID: "outer", Uses: "actions/cache@v4", Number: 3})
+		child := newStep(t, &model.Step{ID: "child", Name: "Restore", Number: 1})
+		skipped := newStep(t, &model.Step{ID: "skipped", Name: "Deploy", Number: 4, If: yaml.Node{Value: "false"}})
+		broken := newStep(t, &model.Step{ID: "broken", Name: "Broken", Number: 5, If: yaml.Node{Value: badExpression}})
+
+		require.NoError(t, runStepExecutor(outer, stepStagePost, runStepExecutor(child, stepStageMain, noopExecutor))(ctx))
+		require.NoError(t, runStepExecutor(skipped, stepStageMain, noopExecutor)(ctx))
+		require.Error(t, runStepExecutor(broken, stepStageMain, noopExecutor)(ctx))
+
+		ended := spans.Ended()
+		require.Len(t, ended, 4)
+		assert.Equal(t, []string{"Restore", "Post Run actions/cache@v4", "Deploy", "Broken"}, []string{ended[0].Name(), ended[1].Name(), ended[2].Name(), ended[3].Name()})
+		assert.Equal(t, ended[1].SpanContext().SpanID(), ended[0].Parent().SpanID())
+		assert.Contains(t, ended[0].Attributes(), semconv.CICDPipelineTaskRunID("7.3.post.1"))
+		assert.Contains(t, ended[2].Attributes(), semconv.CICDPipelineTaskRunResultSkip)
+		assert.Contains(t, ended[3].Attributes(), semconv.CICDPipelineTaskRunResultFailure)
+	})
+
 	t.Run("timeout must be positive", func(t *testing.T) {
 		exprEval := createRunContext(t).NewExpressionEvaluator(context.Background())
 		for timeout, wantDeadline := range map[string]bool{"-1": false, "0": false, "1": true} {

act/runner/testdata/builtin-checkout/push.yml

@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+name: builtin-checkout
+on: push
+jobs:
+  test:
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+      - uses: builtin:checkout
+        with:
+          path: ${{ 'sub' }}
+      - run: test -f sub/builtin-checkout/push.yml

act/runner/testdata/uses-docker-url/push.yml

@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ jobs:
   test:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
     steps:
+      - run: printf 'workspace=from-host-step\n' > workspace-marker
       - uses: docker://node:24-bookworm-slim
         with:
           somekey: somevalue
@@ -16,8 +17,10 @@ jobs:
         with:
           entrypoint: /bin/sh
           args: -c -- uname -a
-      - uses: docker://node:24-bookworm-slim
+      - id: workspace
+        uses: docker://node:24-bookworm-slim
         with:
           entrypoint: /bin/sh
-          args: -c 'uname -a'
+          args: -c 'uname -a && cat "$GITHUB_WORKSPACE/workspace-marker" >> "$GITHUB_OUTPUT"'
+      - run: test '${{ steps.workspace.outputs.workspace }}' = 'from-host-step'
 

docs/builtin-actions.md

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+# Built-in actions
+
+Built-in actions ship with the runner, so a job needs no action download and no Node in its image.
+
+```yaml
+- uses: builtin:checkout
+```
+
+## checkout
+
+Works like `actions/checkout` with these inputs. Any other input fails the step.
+
+| Input | Default |
+| --- | --- |
+| `repository` | `github.repository` |
+| `ref` | the triggering commit, or the default branch of another repository |
+| `token` | `github.token` |
+| `path` | workspace root |
+| `fetch-depth` | `1`, `0` for full history |
+
+With `gitea-runner exec`, checking out the workflow's own repository copies your local working directory, unless `--no-skip-checkout` is set.

docs/kubernetes.md

@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+# Jobs as Kubernetes pods
+
+A `kubernetes` label runs each job as a pod, without a Docker daemon:
+
+```text
+ubuntu-latest:kubernetes://docker.gitea.com/runner-images:ubuntu-latest
+```
+
+The pod has a `job` container from the label's image or the job's `container.image`, plus one container per service.
+
+## Setup
+
+In a cluster, the runner uses its pod's service account and namespace. [`examples/kubernetes/kubernetes-pods.yaml`](../examples/kubernetes/kubernetes-pods.yaml) deploys a runner with these permissions:
+
+| Resource | Verbs |
+| --- | --- |
+| `pods` | `create`, `get`, `list`, `delete` |
+| `pods/exec` | `create`, `get` |
+| `pods/log` | `get` |
+| `secrets` | `create`, `delete` |
+
+Outside a cluster, it uses the current context of the first file in `$KUBECONFIG`, or of `~/.kube/config`, which must authenticate with a token, token file or client certificate. The cluster must run Kubernetes 1.30 or later, and job images need `sh`, `tar`, `tail` and `env`.
+
+## Configuration
+
+```yaml
+kubernetes:
+  kubeconfig: "" # instead of the service account
+  namespace: "" # defaults to the service account's, the kubeconfig context's, or default
+  pod_template: # merged under each job pod, a container named job merges into the job container, one named $services into each service container
+    spec:
+      containers:
+        - name: job
+          resources:
+            limits:
+              memory: 4Gi
+        - name: $services
+          resources:
+            limits:
+              memory: 1Gi
+  pod_templates: # merged over pod_template for jobs whose runs-on has the label they are keyed by
+    gpu:
+      spec:
+        nodeSelector:
+          nvidia.com/gpu.present: "true"
+```
+
+A job with `runs-on: [linux, gpu]` gets the `linux` and then the `gpu` entry of `pod_templates` merged over `pod_template`, while its image comes from the first of its labels the runner has. A template volume named `workspace` or `act` replaces the `emptyDir` the runner mounts at the workspace or at `/var/run/act`, for example to limit its size. Images are pulled by the cluster's `imagePullPolicy` default, a template's, or always with `container.force_pull`.
+
+Job pods mount no service account token unless the template sets `automountServiceAccountToken: true`. Job pods and their Secrets are labeled `app.kubernetes.io/managed-by: gitea-runner` and `com.gitea.runner.uuid: <runner UUID>`. The idle cleanup removes those the runner did not get to remove, once they are older than `runner.workdir_cleanup_age`.
+
+## Services
+
+Services share the pod's network, so a step reaches one by its id or `localhost`, and two services cannot listen on the same port. An id is lowercased and has characters other than letters, digits and `-` replaced by `-`, so the service `my_db` is reached as `my-db`. Pass secrets to services through `env`, as `command` is visible in the pod spec. Of `options`, only `--health-*` is supported. They become a startup probe with Docker's defaults, which stops a service that fails its retries, so the job fails as on Docker.
+
+## Unsupported
+
+Docker actions, `docker://` steps, and the `options`, `volumes` and `credentials` of the job container fail the job, as do `volumes` and `credentials` of services. Run such workflows on a [Docker in Docker](../examples/kubernetes/README.md) runner. Pull private images with `imagePullSecrets` in `pod_template`.

docs/telemetry.md

@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+# OpenTelemetry
+
+The runner can send a trace of every job it runs, and its metrics, to an OpenTelemetry collector or any backend that accepts OTLP. Each job becomes a trace with a span per step, so you can see where CI time goes and which steps fail. Export stays off until you set an endpoint.
+
+## Setup
+
+Set the endpoint in the runner's environment, for example in its systemd unit, with `docker run -e` or in the Kubernetes pod spec:
+
+```sh
+OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_ENDPOINT=http://localhost:4318
+```
+
+| Variable | Purpose |
+| --- | --- |
+| `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_ENDPOINT` | Collector base URL, traces go to `/v1/traces` and metrics to `/v1/metrics` under it |
+| `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_TRACES_ENDPOINT`, `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_METRICS_ENDPOINT` | Full URL per signal, takes precedence over the base URL |
+| `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_HEADERS` | Request headers such as an API key, as comma-separated `key=value` pairs with URL-encoded values |
+| `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_TIMEOUT` | Export timeout in milliseconds, default 10000, 0 for none |
+| `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_COMPRESSION` | `gzip` or `none`, default `none` |
+| `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_CERTIFICATE` | PEM file of the CA to trust instead of the system ones |
+| `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_CLIENT_CERTIFICATE`, `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_CLIENT_KEY` | PEM files of the client certificate and key for mTLS |
+| `OTEL_SERVICE_NAME`, `OTEL_RESOURCE_ATTRIBUTES` | Resource attributes, the service name defaults to `gitea-runner` |
+| `OTEL_TRACES_SAMPLER`, `OTEL_BSP_*` | Sampling and batching, see the [SDK variables](https://opentelemetry.io/docs/specs/otel/configuration/sdk-environment-variables/) |
+| `OTEL_METRIC_EXPORT_INTERVAL`, `OTEL_METRIC_EXPORT_TIMEOUT` | Metrics export interval and timeout in milliseconds, default 60000 and 30000, a timeout of 0 for none |
+| `OTEL_SDK_DISABLED=true` | Turn all export off |
+| `OTEL_TRACES_EXPORTER=none`, `OTEL_METRICS_EXPORTER=none` | Turn traces or metrics off |
+
+Except for the endpoint, each `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_*` variable has `TRACES` and `METRICS` variants such as `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_METRICS_HEADERS`, which take precedence for that signal. Only the `otlp` exporter over the `http/protobuf` protocol is supported.
+
+## What is sent
+
+- A span per job, named `RUN {workflow} {job}`, with the repository, ref, commit, run URL, run number, attempt and result.
+- A span per step, named as in Gitea's step list, including `Pre` and `Post` stages and the steps of composite actions, with the step's result.
+- The runner's name, UUID and version.
+
+Logs, step output and secrets are never sent. Step names are taken from the workflow file as written, without expanding `${{ }}` expressions.
+
+## Tracing inside jobs
+
+Jobs receive `TRACEPARENT`, so tools in a job that use OpenTelemetry can add their spans to the job's trace. To let them export, set their `OTEL_*` variables in `runner.envs`, see [Security](#security).
+
+## Metrics
+
+The metrics of the Prometheus endpoint are also exported, under the same names and whether or not `metrics.enabled` is set. They are sent every export interval and once more on shutdown. If your collector only accepts traces, set `OTEL_METRICS_EXPORTER=none`.
+
+## Security
+
+- OTLP has no authentication of its own. Send to a collector on the runner's host that holds the backend credentials, as the [OpenTelemetry security guide](https://opentelemetry.io/docs/security/config-best-practices/) recommends, or use `https` with a token in `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_HEADERS` or a client certificate. Over plain `http`, headers travel unencrypted.
+- TLS certificates are verified against the system CA bundle, or only against `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_CERTIFICATE` when set. Redirects are not followed, so headers only reach the configured endpoint.
+- Jobs in containers never see the runner's `OTEL_*` variables. Jobs on the host inherit the runner's whole environment, headers included, and can read its files anyway since they run as the same user.
+- Every workflow can read `runner.envs`, so never put credentials there. Point jobs at a collector that holds them instead, keeping in mind that any workflow can then send data through it.
+- Traces carry the repository and step names of every job, private repositories included, so give the collector the same access controls as the runner's logs.

e2e/cancel_test.go

@@ -51,23 +51,29 @@ func testRunCancellation(t *testing.T) {
 
 func waitForRunningJobLog(t *testing.T, api *GiteaAPI, repo string, runID int64, substr string) {
 	t.Helper()
-	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(t.Context(), time.Minute)
+	// The budget covers scheduling and the container start, which a loaded runner makes slow.
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(t.Context(), runTimeout)
 	defer cancel()
 
+	status := "none"
 	for {
 		jobs, err := api.Jobs(ctx, repo, runID)
 		if err != nil {
 			t.Fatalf("list jobs: %v", err)
 		}
-		if len(jobs) > 0 && jobs[0].Status == "in_progress" {
-			logs, err := api.JobLogs(ctx, repo, jobs[0].ID)
-			if err == nil && commandRow(logs, substr) == substr {
-				return
+		if len(jobs) > 0 {
+			status = jobs[0].Status
+			if status == "in_progress" {
+				logs, err := api.JobLogs(ctx, repo, jobs[0].ID)
+				if err == nil && commandRow(logs, substr) == substr {
+					return
+				}
 			}
 		}
 		select {
 		case <-ctx.Done():
-			t.Fatalf("running job for run %d never logged %q", runID, substr)
+			dumpRunLogs(t, api, repo, runID)
+			t.Fatalf("job of run %d is %q and never logged %q", runID, status, substr)
 		case <-time.After(pollInterval):
 		}
 	}

e2e/compatibility_test.go

@@ -31,6 +31,7 @@ func TestCompatibility(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Run("cancellation_and_log_streaming", testRunCancellation)
 	t.Run("dispatch", testWorkflowDispatch)
 	t.Run("ephemeral", testEphemeralRunner)
+	t.Run("kubernetes", testKubernetes)
 }
 
 func testPayloads(t *testing.T) {
@@ -69,6 +70,7 @@ func testPayloads(t *testing.T) {
 		"cell-a-2",
 		"cell-b-1",
 		"cell-b-2",
+		"imageless env=imageless-env-value host=imageless-host",
 	} {
 		if !strings.Contains(logs, want) {
 			t.Errorf("stored logs are missing %q", want)

e2e/ephemeral_test.go

@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ func testEphemeralRunner(t *testing.T) {
 	case <-time.After(5 * time.Second):
 		t.Fatal("ephemeral runner was not deleted")
 	}
-	if !poller.Unregistered() {
+	if !poller.RegistrationRejected() {
 		t.Fatal("ephemeral runner stopped without being deleted")
 	}
 }

e2e/gitea_fixture.go

@@ -23,6 +23,7 @@ import (
 
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/container"
 
+	"github.com/moby/moby/api/pkg/stdcopy"
 	apicontainer "github.com/moby/moby/api/types/container"
 	"github.com/moby/moby/api/types/network"
 	mobyclient "github.com/moby/moby/client"
@@ -306,9 +307,14 @@ func randomToken(n int) string {
 }
 
 func (f *GiteaFixture) exec(ctx context.Context, cmd []string) (string, error) {
-	created, err := f.cli.ExecCreate(ctx, f.id, mobyclient.ExecCreateOptions{
+	return containerExec(ctx, f.cli, f.id, "git", nil, cmd...) // gitea refuses root
+}
+
+func containerExec(ctx context.Context, cli mobyclient.APIClient, id, user string, stdin io.Reader, cmd ...string) (string, error) {
+	created, err := cli.ExecCreate(ctx, id, mobyclient.ExecCreateOptions{
 		Cmd:          cmd,
-		User:         "git", // gitea refuses root
+		User:         user,
+		AttachStdin:  stdin != nil,
 		AttachStdout: true,
 		AttachStderr: true,
 	})
@@ -316,18 +322,24 @@ func (f *GiteaFixture) exec(ctx context.Context, cmd []string) (string, error) {
 		return "", err
 	}
 
-	attached, err := f.cli.ExecAttach(ctx, created.ID, mobyclient.ExecAttachOptions{})
+	attached, err := cli.ExecAttach(ctx, created.ID, mobyclient.ExecAttachOptions{})
 	if err != nil {
 		return "", err
 	}
 	defer attached.Close()
+	if stdin != nil {
+		go func() {
+			_, _ = io.Copy(attached.Conn, stdin)
+			_ = attached.CloseWrite()
+		}()
+	}
 
 	var out bytes.Buffer
-	if _, err := io.Copy(&out, attached.Reader); err != nil {
+	if _, err := stdcopy.StdCopy(&out, &out, attached.Reader); err != nil {
 		return "", err
 	}
 
-	inspected, err := f.cli.ExecInspect(ctx, created.ID, mobyclient.ExecInspectOptions{})
+	inspected, err := cli.ExecInspect(ctx, created.ID, mobyclient.ExecInspectOptions{})
 	if err != nil {
 		return "", err
 	}

e2e/kubernetes_test.go

@@ -0,0 +1,166 @@
+// Copyright 2026 The Gitea Authors. All rights reserved.
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+
+//go:build e2e
+
+package e2e
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"context"
+	"fmt"
+	"net"
+	"net/netip"
+	"net/url"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"strconv"
+	"strings"
+	"testing"
+	"time"
+
+	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/config"
+
+	"github.com/moby/moby/api/pkg/stdcopy"
+	apicontainer "github.com/moby/moby/api/types/container"
+	"github.com/moby/moby/api/types/network"
+	mobyclient "github.com/moby/moby/client"
+)
+
+func testKubernetes(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+	ctx := t.Context()
+	k3sID, kubernetes := startK3s(t)
+
+	images := preloadImages(t, k3sID, os.Getenv("E2E_JOB_IMAGE"), os.Getenv("SERVICE_IMAGE"))
+
+	api, repo := newScenario(t)
+	if err := api.CreateVariable(ctx, repo, "E2E_SERVICE_IMAGE", images[1]); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("create service image variable: %v", err)
+	}
+	startRunner(t, repo, "e2e-kubernetes", runnerOptions{image: images[0], kubernetes: kubernetes})
+	pushWorkflow(t, api, repo, "kubernetes.yml")
+
+	wfRun := waitForRun(t, api, repo)
+	requireSuccess(t, api, repo, wfRun.ID)
+
+	if out, err := containerExec(ctx, fixture.cli, k3sID, "", nil,
+		"kubectl", "wait", "--for=delete", "pods,secrets", "--selector=app.kubernetes.io/managed-by=gitea-runner", "--timeout=1m",
+	); err != nil {
+		t.Errorf("job pods or secrets left behind: %v: %s", err, out)
+	}
+}
+
+func startK3s(t *testing.T) (string, *config.Kubernetes) {
+	t.Helper()
+	ctx := t.Context()
+	cli := fixture.cli
+
+	name := fmt.Sprintf("gitea-runner-e2e-k3s-%d", time.Now().UnixNano())
+	apiPort := network.MustParsePort("6443/tcp")
+	server := "https://" + name + ":6443"
+	hostConfig := &apicontainer.HostConfig{Privileged: true}
+	var netConfig *network.NetworkingConfig
+	if fixture.network != "" {
+		netConfig = &network.NetworkingConfig{EndpointsConfig: map[string]*network.EndpointSettings{fixture.network: {}}}
+	} else {
+		loopback := netip.MustParseAddr("127.0.0.1")
+		port, err := freeHostPort(loopback.String())
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatalf("find a free host port: %v", err)
+		}
+		server = "https://" + net.JoinHostPort(loopback.String(), strconv.Itoa(port))
+		hostConfig.PortBindings = network.PortMap{apiPort: []network.PortBinding{{HostIP: loopback, HostPort: strconv.Itoa(port)}}}
+	}
+
+	created, err := cli.ContainerCreate(ctx, mobyclient.ContainerCreateOptions{
+		Config: &apicontainer.Config{
+			Image:        os.Getenv("E2E_K3S_IMAGE"),
+			Cmd:          []string{"server", "--disable=traefik,metrics-server,servicelb,local-storage,coredns", "--tls-san=" + name, "--kubelet-arg=fail-cgroupv1=false"},
+			ExposedPorts: network.PortSet{apiPort: struct{}{}},
+		},
+		HostConfig:       hostConfig,
+		NetworkingConfig: netConfig,
+		Name:             name,
+	})
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("create k3s container: %v", err)
+	}
+	t.Cleanup(func() {
+		_, _ = cli.ContainerRemove(context.Background(), created.ID, mobyclient.ContainerRemoveOptions{Force: true, RemoveVolumes: true})
+	})
+	if _, err := cli.ContainerStart(ctx, created.ID, mobyclient.ContainerStartOptions{}); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("start k3s container: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	waitCtx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(ctx, 2*time.Minute)
+	defer cancel()
+	for {
+		_, err := containerExec(waitCtx, cli, created.ID, "", nil, "kubectl", "get", "serviceaccount", "default")
+		if err == nil {
+			break
+		}
+		inspected, inspectErr := cli.ContainerInspect(ctx, created.ID, mobyclient.ContainerInspectOptions{})
+		if inspectErr != nil || !inspected.Container.State.Running || waitCtx.Err() != nil {
+			var logs bytes.Buffer
+			if reader, logsErr := cli.ContainerLogs(ctx, created.ID, mobyclient.ContainerLogsOptions{ShowStdout: true, ShowStderr: true, Tail: "30"}); logsErr == nil {
+				_, _ = stdcopy.StdCopy(&logs, &logs, reader)
+				_ = reader.Close()
+			}
+			t.Fatalf("k3s did not start: %v, state %+v %v, last log lines:\n%s", err, inspected.Container.State, inspectErr, logs.String())
+		}
+		select {
+		case <-waitCtx.Done():
+		case <-time.After(pollInterval):
+		}
+	}
+
+	kubeconfig, err := containerExec(ctx, cli, created.ID, "", nil, "cat", "/etc/rancher/k3s/k3s.yaml")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("read kubeconfig: %v", err)
+	}
+	path := filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "kubeconfig")
+	if err := os.WriteFile(path, []byte(strings.ReplaceAll(kubeconfig, "https://127.0.0.1:6443", server)), 0o600); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("write kubeconfig: %v", err)
+	}
+	kubernetes := &config.Kubernetes{Kubeconfig: path, Namespace: "default"}
+
+	if fixture.network != "" {
+		gitea, err := cli.ContainerInspect(ctx, fixture.id, mobyclient.ContainerInspectOptions{})
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatalf("inspect gitea container: %v", err)
+		}
+		giteaURL, err := url.Parse(fixture.baseURL)
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatalf("parse gitea url: %v", err)
+		}
+		kubernetes.PodTemplate = map[string]any{"spec": map[string]any{"hostAliases": []any{map[string]any{
+			"ip":        gitea.Container.NetworkSettings.Networks[fixture.network].IPAddress.String(),
+			"hostnames": []any{giteaURL.Hostname()},
+		}}}}
+	}
+	return created.ID, kubernetes
+}
+
+func preloadImages(t *testing.T, k3sID string, images ...string) []string {
+	t.Helper()
+	ctx := t.Context()
+	var aliases []string
+	for index, image := range images {
+		alias := fmt.Sprintf("gitea-runner-e2e/preload-%d:%d", index, time.Now().UnixNano())
+		if _, err := fixture.cli.ImageTag(ctx, mobyclient.ImageTagOptions{Source: image, Target: alias}); err != nil {
+			t.Fatalf("tag %s: %v", image, err)
+		}
+		t.Cleanup(func() { _, _ = fixture.cli.ImageRemove(context.Background(), alias, mobyclient.ImageRemoveOptions{}) })
+		aliases = append(aliases, alias)
+	}
+	archive, err := fixture.cli.ImageSave(ctx, aliases)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("save %v: %v", images, err)
+	}
+	defer archive.Close()
+	if out, err := containerExec(ctx, fixture.cli, k3sID, "", archive, "ctr", "--namespace=k8s.io", "images", "import", "-"); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("import %v into k3s: %v: %s", images, err, out)
+	}
+	return aliases
+}

e2e/runner_harness.go

@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@
 package e2e
 
 import (
+	"cmp"
 	"context"
 	"errors"
 	"os"
@@ -24,10 +25,12 @@ import (
 )
 
 type runnerOptions struct {
-	capacity  int
-	ephemeral bool
-	cacheV2   *bool
-	cacheHost string
+	capacity   int
+	ephemeral  bool
+	cacheV2    *bool
+	cacheHost  string
+	image      string
+	kubernetes *config.Kubernetes
 }
 
 func startRunner(t *testing.T, repo, labelName string, options runnerOptions) *poll.Poller {
@@ -61,7 +64,11 @@ func startRunner(t *testing.T, repo, labelName string, options runnerOptions) *p
 		cfg.Container.Network = fixture.network
 	}
 
-	rawLabel := labelName + ":docker://" + os.Getenv("E2E_JOB_IMAGE")
+	scheme := labels.SchemeDocker
+	if options.kubernetes != nil {
+		scheme, cfg.Kubernetes = labels.SchemeKubernetes, *options.kubernetes
+	}
+	rawLabel := labelName + ":" + scheme + "://" + cmp.Or(options.image, os.Getenv("E2E_JOB_IMAGE"))
 	label, err := labels.Parse(rawLabel)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("parse label %q: %v", rawLabel, err)

e2e/testdata/workflows/cancel.yml

@@ -6,4 +6,4 @@ jobs:
     steps:
       - run: |
           echo e2e-live-log-marker
-          timeout 2s tail -f /dev/null || true
+          timeout 10s tail -f /dev/null || true

e2e/testdata/workflows/kubernetes.yml

@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+name: kubernetes
+on: push
+jobs:
+  pod:
+    runs-on: e2e-kubernetes
+    services:
+      web:
+        image: ${{ vars.E2E_SERVICE_IMAGE }}
+        env:
+          NGINX_ENTRYPOINT_QUIET_LOGS: 1
+        options: --health-cmd "wget -q -O /dev/null http://localhost/" --health-interval 1s
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - run: |
+          test -f .gitea/workflows/kubernetes.yml
+          echo "FROM_ENV=exported" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+      - run: |
+          test "$FROM_ENV" = exported
+          test -n "$KUBERNETES_SERVICE_HOST" -a -n "${{ runner.arch }}"
+          curl -fsS -o /dev/null http://web/

e2e/testdata/workflows/payloads.yml

@@ -3,6 +3,10 @@ on: push
 jobs:
   verify:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    container:
+      env:
+        IMAGELESS_ENV: imageless-env-value
+      options: --hostname imageless-host
     services:
       web:
         image: ${{ vars.E2E_SERVICE_IMAGE }}
@@ -19,6 +23,7 @@ jobs:
           echo '::notice::encoded-first%0Aencoded-second'
           echo "the variable is ${{ vars.GREETING }}"
           echo "the secret is ${{ secrets.FOO }}"
+          echo "imageless env=$IMAGELESS_ENV host=$(hostname)"
           curl --connect-timeout 1 --max-time 2 --retry 30 --retry-delay 1 --retry-max-time 30 --retry-all-errors -fsS -o /dev/null http://web/
   produce:
     runs-on: ubuntu-latest

examples/docker-compose/README.md

@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
 ### Running `gitea-runner` using `docker-compose`
 
+This uses the recommended Docker-in-Docker image, see [image flavours](../../README.md#image-flavours).
+
 ```yml
 ...
   gitea:
@@ -19,8 +21,9 @@
       # - GITEA_RUNNER_REGISTRATION_TOKEN=<user-defined registration token>
 
   runner:
-    image: gitea/runner
+    image: gitea/runner:latest-dind
     restart: always
+    privileged: true
     depends_on:
       gitea:
         # required so runner can attach to gitea, see "healthcheck"
@@ -28,7 +31,6 @@
         restart: true
     volumes:
       - ./data/runner:/data
-      - /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock
     environment:
       - GITEA_INSTANCE_URL=<instance url>
       # When using Docker Secrets, it's also possible to use
@@ -38,10 +40,9 @@
       - GITEA_RUNNER_REGISTRATION_TOKEN=<registration token>
 ```
 
-### Running `gitea-runner` using Docker-in-Docker (DIND)
+### Running `gitea-runner` using rootless Docker-in-Docker
 
-- `privileged` has to be set to `true` because in-container Docker daemon requires a lot of kernel capabilities and file system mounts like `procfs` and `sysfs`
-- `security_opt` sets the `apparmor` profile to `rootlesskit` for hosts running AppArmor (e.g. Ubuntu, Debian), where the kernel might otherwise block user namespace changes that Docker daemon requires for startup. The `rootlesskit` profile is provided by the `docker-ce-rootless-extras` package and is present on hosts where Docker was installed via the official installer or distro packages
+On AppArmor hosts such as Ubuntu and Debian, `security_opt` is needed for the daemon to start. Docker's `docker-ce-rootless-extras` package provides the `rootlesskit` profile.
 
 ```yml
 ...

examples/docker/README.md

@@ -1,8 +1,14 @@
 ### Run `gitea-runner` in a Docker Container
 
+The recommended Docker-in-Docker image runs its own Docker daemon for jobs, so they never get the host's Docker socket:
+
 ```sh
-docker run -e GITEA_INSTANCE_URL=http://192.168.8.18:3000 -e GITEA_RUNNER_REGISTRATION_TOKEN=<runner_token> -v /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock -v $PWD/data:/data --name my_runner gitea/runner:nightly
+docker run --privileged \
+  -e GITEA_INSTANCE_URL=http://192.168.8.18:3000 \
+  -e GITEA_RUNNER_REGISTRATION_TOKEN=<runner_token> \
+  -v "$PWD/data:/data" \
+  -v runner-docker:/var/lib/docker \
+  --name my_runner gitea/runner:nightly-dind
 ```
 
-The `/data` directory inside the docker container contains the runner API keys after registration.
-It must be persisted, otherwise the runner would try to register again, using the same, now defunct registration token.
+The volumes keep the runner's registration and the job image cache. See [image flavours](../../README.md#image-flavours) for alternatives.

examples/kubernetes/README.md

@@ -1,25 +1,8 @@
-## Kubernetes Docker in Docker Deployment with `gitea-runner`
+## Kubernetes deployments of `gitea-runner`
 
-NOTE: Docker in Docker (dind) requires elevated privileges on Kubernetes. The current way to achieve this is to set the pod `SecurityContext` to `privileged`. Keep in mind that this is a potential security issue that has the potential for a malicious application to break out of the container context.
+Jobs can run on Kubernetes in two ways:
 
-NOTE: `dind-docker.yaml` uses the native sidecar pattern (init container with `restartPolicy: Always`), which requires Kubernetes 1.29+ (or 1.28 with the `SidecarContainers` feature gate).
+- **Job pods**: each job runs as its own pod, without privileged containers and under the cluster's quotas and policies. Docker actions and `docker://` steps are not supported. Deploy with [`kubernetes-pods.yaml`](kubernetes-pods.yaml) and see [docs/kubernetes.md](../../docs/kubernetes.md).
+- **Docker in Docker**: jobs run in a Docker daemon next to the runner. Every workflow feature works, but the daemon is privileged, so a job can break out to the node. Deploy with [`dind-docker.yaml`](dind-docker.yaml), [`statefulset-dind.yaml`](statefulset-dind.yaml) for several replicas, [`rootless-docker.yaml`](rootless-docker.yaml) for a rootless daemon, or the [Helm chart](https://gitea.com/gitea/helm-actions). The sidecars in the first two need Kubernetes 1.29 or later.
 
-NOTE: A helm chart for `gitea-runner` also exists for easier deployments https://gitea.com/gitea/helm-actions
-
-Each example persists **two** things, and it is worth knowing which is which:
-
-- `/data` is the runner's working directory. It holds the `.runner` registration file and, optionally, the config file — so the runner re-attaches to the server instead of registering again.
-- The Docker daemon's data root holds the images pulled for jobs (`/var/lib/docker` for the dind sidecar, `/home/rootless/.local/share/docker` for `dind-rootless`). It is *not* under `/data`. If you drop this volume, the examples still work, but the image cache is discarded whenever the pod is recreated and every job re-pulls its images.
-
-- Kubernetes SIGKILLs a pod 30s after SIGTERM by default, long before a job finishes and reports its result, which leaves tasks the server can only reap as zombies. The manifests raise `terminationGracePeriodSeconds` to three hours, matching the systemd example and the `runner.timeout` job ceiling; set `runner.shutdown_timeout` below that so the runner drains jobs within the window rather than being killed mid-cleanup.
-
-Files in this directory:
-
-- [`dind-docker.yaml`](dind-docker.yaml)
-  How to create a Deployment and Persistent Volume for Kubernetes to act as a runner. The Docker credentials are re-generated each time the pod connects and does not need to be persisted.
-
-- [`rootless-docker.yaml`](rootless-docker.yaml)
-  How to create a rootless Deployment and Persistent Volume for Kubernetes to act as a runner. The Docker credentials are re-generated each time the pod connects and does not need to be persisted.
-
-- [`statefulset-dind.yaml`](statefulset-dind.yaml)
-  StatefulSet variant of the dind example. Each replica gets a stable identity and its own persistent volume via `volumeClaimTemplates`, so the runner keeps its `.runner` registration across restarts and reschedules instead of trying to register again.
+All examples read the registration token from the `runner-secret` Secret and the Gitea URL from `GITEA_INSTANCE_URL`, and keep the registration in `/data`. They give a stopping pod three hours to finish its jobs, so keep `runner.shutdown_timeout` below `terminationGracePeriodSeconds`.

examples/kubernetes/kubernetes-pods.yaml

@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+apiVersion: v1
+data:
+  token: << base64 encoded registration token >>
+kind: Secret
+metadata:
+  name: runner-secret
+---
+apiVersion: v1
+kind: ServiceAccount
+metadata:
+  name: runner
+---
+apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
+kind: Role
+metadata:
+  name: runner
+rules:
+- apiGroups: [""]
+  resources: ["pods"]
+  verbs: ["create", "get", "list", "delete"]
+- apiGroups: [""]
+  resources: ["pods/exec"]
+  verbs: ["create", "get"]
+- apiGroups: [""]
+  resources: ["pods/log"]
+  verbs: ["get"]
+- apiGroups: [""]
+  resources: ["secrets"]
+  verbs: ["create", "delete"]
+---
+apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
+kind: RoleBinding
+metadata:
+  name: runner
+roleRef:
+  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io
+  kind: Role
+  name: runner
+subjects:
+- kind: ServiceAccount
+  name: runner
+---
+apiVersion: apps/v1
+kind: StatefulSet
+metadata:
+  name: runner
+spec:
+  serviceName: runner
+  selector:
+    matchLabels:
+      app: runner
+  template:
+    metadata:
+      labels:
+        app: runner
+    spec:
+      serviceAccountName: runner
+      terminationGracePeriodSeconds: 10800 # keep above runner.shutdown_timeout, see README
+      containers:
+      - name: runner
+        image: gitea/runner:nightly
+        env:
+        - name: GITEA_INSTANCE_URL
+          value: http://gitea-http.gitea.svc.cluster.local:3000
+        - name: GITEA_RUNNER_REGISTRATION_TOKEN
+          valueFrom:
+            secretKeyRef:
+              name: runner-secret
+              key: token
+        - name: GITEA_RUNNER_LABELS
+          value: ubuntu-latest:kubernetes://docker.gitea.com/runner-images:ubuntu-latest
+        volumeMounts:
+        - name: runner-data
+          mountPath: /data
+  volumeClaimTemplates:
+  - metadata:
+      name: runner-data
+    spec:
+      accessModes:
+      - ReadWriteOnce
+      resources:
+        requests:
+          storage: 1Gi

go.mod

@@ -7,18 +7,20 @@ toolchain go1.27.1
 require (
 	connectrpc.com/connect v1.21.0
 	dario.cat/mergo v1.0.2
-	gitea.dev/actionslib v1.0.0
+	gitea.dev/actionslib v1.2.1
 	github.com/avast/retry-go/v5 v5.0.0
+	github.com/bmatcuk/doublestar/v4 v4.10.2
+	github.com/coder/websocket v1.8.15
 	github.com/containerd/errdefs v1.0.0
 	github.com/creack/pty v1.1.24
 	github.com/distribution/reference v0.6.0
-	github.com/docker/cli v29.8.0+incompatible
+	github.com/docker/cli v29.8.1+incompatible
 	github.com/docker/go-connections v0.8.1
 	github.com/docker/go-units v0.5.0
 	github.com/go-git/go-billy/v5 v5.9.1
 	github.com/go-git/go-git/v5 v5.19.2
-	github.com/gobwas/glob v1.0.0
 	github.com/google/go-cmp v0.7.0
+	github.com/johannesboyne/gofakes3 v1.2.0
 	github.com/joho/godotenv v1.5.1
 	github.com/julienschmidt/httprouter v1.3.0
 	github.com/kballard/go-shellquote v0.0.0-20180428030007-95032a82bc51
@@ -37,6 +39,11 @@ require (
 	github.com/stretchr/testify v1.12.1
 	github.com/timshannon/bolthold v0.0.0-20240314194003-30aac6950928
 	go.etcd.io/bbolt v1.5.0
+	go.opentelemetry.io/otel v1.46.0
+	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/exporters/otlp/otlptrace v1.46.0
+	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/sdk v1.46.0
+	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/trace v1.46.0
+	go.opentelemetry.io/proto/otlp v1.11.0
 	go.yaml.in/yaml/v4 v4.0.0-rc.6
 	golang.org/x/net v0.59.0
 	golang.org/x/sync v0.23.0
@@ -53,7 +60,6 @@ require (
 	github.com/Microsoft/go-winio v0.6.2 // indirect
 	github.com/ProtonMail/go-crypto v1.4.1 // indirect
 	github.com/beorn7/perks v1.0.1 // indirect
-	github.com/bmatcuk/doublestar/v4 v4.10.0 // indirect
 	github.com/cespare/xxhash/v2 v2.3.0 // indirect
 	github.com/cloudflare/circl v1.6.5 // indirect
 	github.com/containerd/errdefs/pkg v0.3.0 // indirect
@@ -68,6 +74,7 @@ require (
 	github.com/go-viper/mapstructure/v2 v2.5.0 // indirect
 	github.com/golang/groupcache v0.0.0-20241129210726-2c02b8208cf8 // indirect
 	github.com/google/shlex v0.0.0-20191202100458-e7afc7fbc510 // indirect
+	github.com/google/uuid v1.6.0 // indirect
 	github.com/inconshreveable/mousetrap v1.1.0 // indirect
 	github.com/jbenet/go-context v0.0.0-20150711004518-d14ea06fba99 // indirect
 	github.com/kevinburke/ssh_config v1.6.0 // indirect
@@ -82,6 +89,7 @@ require (
 	github.com/pjbgf/sha1cd v0.6.0 // indirect
 	github.com/prometheus/common v0.70.1 // indirect
 	github.com/prometheus/procfs v0.21.1 // indirect
+	github.com/ryszard/goskiplist v0.0.0-20150312221310-2dfbae5fcf46 // indirect
 	github.com/santhosh-tekuri/jsonschema/v6 v6.0.3 // indirect
 	github.com/sergi/go-diff v1.4.0 // indirect
 	github.com/skeema/knownhosts v1.3.2 // indirect
@@ -89,10 +97,10 @@ require (
 	github.com/xanzy/ssh-agent v0.3.3 // indirect
 	go.opentelemetry.io/auto/sdk v1.2.1 // indirect
 	go.opentelemetry.io/contrib/instrumentation/net/http/otelhttp v0.70.0 // indirect
-	go.opentelemetry.io/otel v1.45.0 // indirect
-	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/metric v1.45.0 // indirect
-	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/trace v1.45.0 // indirect
+	go.opentelemetry.io/otel/metric v1.46.0 // indirect
+	go.shabbyrobe.org/gocovmerge v0.0.0-20230507111327-fa4f82cfbf4d // indirect
 	go.yaml.in/yaml/v3 v3.0.5 // indirect
 	golang.org/x/crypto v0.57.0 // indirect
+	golang.org/x/tools v0.49.0 // indirect
 	gopkg.in/warnings.v0 v0.1.2 // indirect
 )

go.sum

@@ -4,8 +4,8 @@ cyphar.com/go-pathrs v0.2.5 h1:SnX9FBvnoyn3lUs1dkMgZ52bAETpirNu3FTRh5HlRik=
 cyphar.com/go-pathrs v0.2.5/go.mod h1:y8f1EMG7r+hCuFf/rXsKqMJrJAUoADZGNh5/vZPKcGc=
 dario.cat/mergo v1.0.2 h1:85+piFYR1tMbRrLcDwR18y4UKJ3aH1Tbzi24VRW1TK8=
 dario.cat/mergo v1.0.2/go.mod h1:E/hbnu0NxMFBjpMIE34DRGLWqDy0g5FuKDhCb31ngxA=
-gitea.dev/actionslib v1.0.0 h1:l0oFJP+P4Ds1rlCI5zk618dYkuBc2mU7Gz5wPeG0lZY=
-gitea.dev/actionslib v1.0.0/go.mod h1:6O8YHkqVTKSR0LL2e5VhIDePYzGTZCbfmSVqJWEhk9g=
+gitea.dev/actionslib v1.2.1 h1:GL//K/0zIZV6h1OOksv1awvFVg0rg7fug2xWcG7mkG0=
+gitea.dev/actionslib v1.2.1/go.mod h1:1+gqOKGSEPn2IFHgY8S3GC5Ld+Hn8jF3OxiFHQ/fpx4=
 github.com/AdaLogics/go-fuzz-headers v0.0.0-20240806141605-e8a1dd7889d6 h1:He8afgbRMd7mFxO99hRNu+6tazq8nFF9lIwo9JFroBk=
 github.com/AdaLogics/go-fuzz-headers v0.0.0-20240806141605-e8a1dd7889d6/go.mod h1:8o94RPi1/7XTJvwPpRSzSUedZrtlirdB3r9Z20bi2f8=
 github.com/Microsoft/go-winio v0.5.2/go.mod h1:WpS1mjBmmwHBEWmogvA2mj8546UReBk4v8QkMxJ6pZY=
@@ -19,14 +19,44 @@ github.com/armon/go-socks5 v0.0.0-20160902184237-e75332964ef5 h1:0CwZNZbxp69SHPd
 github.com/armon/go-socks5 v0.0.0-20160902184237-e75332964ef5/go.mod h1:wHh0iHkYZB8zMSxRWpUBQtwG5a7fFgvEO+odwuTv2gs=
 github.com/avast/retry-go/v5 v5.0.0 h1:kf1Qc2UsTZ4qq8elDymqfbISvkyMuhgRxuJqX2NHP7k=
 github.com/avast/retry-go/v5 v5.0.0/go.mod h1://d+usmKWio1agtZfS1H/ltTqwtIfBnRq9zEwjc3eH8=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2 v1.41.5 h1:dj5kopbwUsVUVFgO4Fi5BIT3t4WyqIDjGKCangnV/yY=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2 v1.41.5/go.mod h1:mwsPRE8ceUUpiTgF7QmQIJ7lgsKUPQOUl3o72QBrE1o=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/aws/protocol/eventstream v1.7.8 h1:eBMB84YGghSocM7PsjmmPffTa+1FBUeNvGvFou6V/4o=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/aws/protocol/eventstream v1.7.8/go.mod h1:lyw7GFp3qENLh7kwzf7iMzAxDn+NzjXEAGjKS2UOKqI=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/credentials v1.17.67 h1:9KxtdcIA/5xPNQyZRgUSpYOE6j9Bc4+D7nZua0KGYOM=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/credentials v1.17.67/go.mod h1:p3C44m+cfnbv763s52gCqrjaqyPikj9Sg47kUVaNZQQ=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/feature/s3/manager v1.17.75 h1:S61/E3N01oral6B3y9hZ2E1iFDqCZPPOBoBQretCnBI=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/feature/s3/manager v1.17.75/go.mod h1:bDMQbkI1vJbNjnvJYpPTSNYBkI/VIv18ngWb/K84tkk=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/configsources v1.4.21 h1:Rgg6wvjjtX8bNHcvi9OnXWwcE0a2vGpbwmtICOsvcf4=
+github.com/aws/aws-sdk-go-v2/internal/configsources v1.4.21/go.mod h1:A/kJFst/nm//cyqonihbdpQZwiUhhzpqTsdbhDdRF9c=
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@@ -44,8 +74,8 @@ github.com/distribution/reference v0.6.0 h1:0IXCQ5g4/QMHHkarYzh5l+u8T3t73zM5Qvfr
 github.com/distribution/reference v0.6.0/go.mod h1:BbU0aIcezP1/5jX/8MP0YiH4SdvB5Y4f/wlDRiLyi3E=
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 github.com/dlclark/regexp2 v1.11.0/go.mod h1:DHkYz0B9wPfa6wondMfaivmHpzrQ3v9q8cnmRbL6yW8=
-github.com/docker/cli v29.8.0+incompatible h1:ih0c2jq/nN7QfES8zIfwSzIhRScjs4ehER+kZ60aeSk=
-github.com/docker/cli v29.8.0+incompatible/go.mod h1:JLrzqnKDaYBop7H2jaqPtU4hHvMKP+vjCwu2uszcLI8=
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@@ -75,8 +105,6 @@ github.com/go-logr/stdr v1.2.2 h1:hSWxHoqTgW2S2qGc0LTAI563KZ5YKYRhT3MFKZMbjag=
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 github.com/golang/groupcache v0.0.0-20241129210726-2c02b8208cf8 h1:f+oWsMOmNPc8JmEHVZIycC7hBoQxHH9pNKQORJNozsQ=
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@@ -89,6 +117,8 @@ github.com/inconshreveable/mousetrap v1.1.0 h1:wN+x4NVGpMsO7ErUn/mUI3vEoE6Jt13X2
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@@ -158,6 +188,8 @@ github.com/prometheus/procfs v0.21.1/go.mod h1:aB55Cww9pdSJVHk0hUf0inxWyyjPogFIj
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@@ -167,6 +199,8 @@ github.com/sirupsen/logrus v1.10.2 h1:G2SED73/qrAu6YwbdxOD6peLkCBI3z7L+ykJFTXJBB
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@@ -196,16 +230,22 @@ go.opentelemetry.io/auto/sdk v1.2.1 h1:jXsnJ4Lmnqd11kwkBV2LgLoFMZKizbCi5fNZ/ipaZ
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@@ -242,12 +282,16 @@ golang.org/x/text v0.3.6/go.mod h1:5Zoc/QRtKVWzQhOtBMvqHzDpF6irO9z98xDceosuGiQ=
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 gopkg.in/yaml.v2 v2.2.2/go.mod h1:hI93XBmqTisBFMUTm0b8Fm+jr3Dg1NNxqwp+5A1VGuI=

internal/app/cmd/cache-server.go

@@ -29,6 +29,9 @@ func runCacheServer(configFile *string, cacheArgs *cacheServerArgs) func(cmd *co
 		}
 
 		initLogging(cfg)
+		if cfg.Cache.S3 != nil {
+			return errors.New("cache-server does not support cache.s3; set cache.s3 on the runners instead")
+		}
 
 		var (
 			dir  = cfg.Cache.Dir

internal/app/cmd/config.go

@@ -27,6 +27,19 @@ func loadConfigCmd(configFile *string) *cobra.Command {
 
 	configCmd.AddCommand(loadGenerateConfigCmd("generate"))
 	configCmd.AddCommand(loadInitConfigCmd(configFile))
+	configCmd.AddCommand(&cobra.Command{
+		Use:   "runner-file",
+		Short: "Print the registration file path used by the runner",
+		Args:  cobra.NoArgs,
+		RunE: func(cmd *cobra.Command, _ []string) error {
+			cfg, err := config.LoadDefault(*configFile)
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			fmt.Fprintln(cmd.OutOrStdout(), cfg.Runner.File)
+			return nil
+		},
+	})
 
 	configCmd.AddCommand(&cobra.Command{
 		Use:   "get <key>",

internal/app/cmd/config_test.go

@@ -97,3 +97,14 @@ func TestConfigCmdResolvesTheConfigFile(t *testing.T) {
 		assert.Contains(t, err.Error(), "--config")
 	})
 }
+
+func TestConfigCmdRunnerFileUsesConfiguredPathOrDefault(t *testing.T) {
+	out, _, err := runConfigCmd(t, "", "runner-file")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Equal(t, ".runner\n", out)
+	file := filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "config.yaml")
+	require.NoError(t, os.WriteFile(file, []byte("runner:\n  file: 'state dir/registration.json'\n"), 0o600))
+	out, _, err = runConfigCmd(t, file, "runner-file")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Equal(t, "state dir/registration.json\n", out)
+}

internal/app/cmd/daemon.go

@@ -25,6 +25,7 @@ import (
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/lock"
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/metrics"
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/report"
+	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/telemetry"
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/ver"
 
 	"connectrpc.com/connect"
@@ -71,6 +72,18 @@ func runDaemon(ctx context.Context, daemArgs *daemonArgs, configFile *string) fu
 			defer func() { _ = releaseLock() }()
 		}
 
+		shutdownTelemetry, err := telemetry.Setup(ctx, reg.UUID, reg.Name, metrics.Registry)
+		if err != nil {
+			log.WithError(err).Warn("OpenTelemetry export failed to start")
+		}
+		defer func() {
+			ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(context.Background(), 5*time.Second)
+			defer cancel()
+			if err := shutdownTelemetry(ctx); err != nil {
+				log.WithError(err).Warn("OpenTelemetry export failed to flush")
+			}
+		}()
+
 		lbls := resolveLabels(daemArgs.Labels, cfg.Runner.Labels, reg.Labels)
 
 		ls := labels.Labels{}
@@ -178,6 +191,9 @@ func runDaemon(ctx context.Context, daemArgs *daemonArgs, configFile *string) fu
 			return err
 		case err != nil:
 			log.WithError(err).Error("fail to invoke Declare")
+			if client.IsRegistrationRejected(err) {
+				removeEphemeralRegistration(reg, cfg.Runner.File)
+			}
 			return err
 		default:
 			log.Infof("runner: %s, with version: %s, with labels: %v, declare successfully",
@@ -187,12 +203,12 @@ func runDaemon(ctx context.Context, daemArgs *daemonArgs, configFile *string) fu
 
 		poller := poll.New(cfg, cli, runner)
 
+		metrics.Init() // OTLP exports the registry even without the server
+		metrics.RunnerInfo.WithLabelValues(ver.Version(), resp.Msg.Runner.Name).Set(1)
+		metrics.RunnerCapacity.Set(float64(cfg.Runner.Capacity))
+		metrics.RegisterUptimeFunc(time.Now())
+		metrics.RegisterRunningJobsFunc(runner.RunningCount, cfg.Runner.Capacity)
 		if cfg.Metrics.Enabled {
-			metrics.Init()
-			metrics.RunnerInfo.WithLabelValues(ver.Version(), resp.Msg.Runner.Name).Set(1)
-			metrics.RunnerCapacity.Set(float64(cfg.Runner.Capacity))
-			metrics.RegisterUptimeFunc(time.Now())
-			metrics.RegisterRunningJobsFunc(runner.RunningCount, cfg.Runner.Capacity)
 			metrics.StartServer(ctx, cfg.Metrics.Addr, func() (bool, string) {
 				return poller.Ready(cfg.Metrics.ReadinessGrace)
 			})
@@ -202,7 +218,7 @@ func runDaemon(ctx context.Context, daemArgs *daemonArgs, configFile *string) fu
 			done := make(chan struct{})
 			go func() {
 				defer close(done)
-				poller.PollOnce()
+				poller.PollOnce(func() { removeEphemeralRegistration(reg, cfg.Runner.File) })
 			}()
 
 			// shutdown when we complete a job or cancel is requested
@@ -231,6 +247,10 @@ func runDaemon(ctx context.Context, daemArgs *daemonArgs, configFile *string) fu
 			log.Warnf("runner: %s cancelled in progress jobs during shutdown", resp.Msg.Runner.Name)
 		}
 
+		if poller.RegistrationRejected() {
+			removeEphemeralRegistration(reg, cfg.Runner.File)
+		}
+
 		if poller.Unregistered() {
 			return errors.New("runner is no longer registered with the server; please register it again")
 		}
@@ -239,6 +259,17 @@ func runDaemon(ctx context.Context, daemArgs *daemonArgs, configFile *string) fu
 	}
 }
 
+func removeEphemeralRegistration(reg *config.Registration, file string) {
+	if !reg.Ephemeral {
+		return
+	}
+	if err := os.Remove(file); err == nil {
+		log.Infof("removed the spent ephemeral registration %q", file)
+	} else if !os.IsNotExist(err) {
+		log.WithError(err).Warn("failed to remove the spent ephemeral registration")
+	}
+}
+
 type daemonArgs struct {
 	Once   bool
 	Labels string

internal/app/cmd/daemon_test.go

@@ -4,13 +4,24 @@
 package cmd
 
 import (
+	"context"
+	"errors"
+	"net/http"
+	"net/http/httptest"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
 	"testing"
+	"time"
 
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/config"
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/report"
 
+	"connectrpc.com/connect"
+	runnerv1 "gitea.dev/actionslib/runner/v1"
+	"gitea.dev/actionslib/runner/v1/runnerv1connect"
 	log "github.com/sirupsen/logrus"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+	"google.golang.org/protobuf/types/known/structpb"
 )
 
 func TestResolveLabels(t *testing.T) {
@@ -70,3 +81,79 @@ func TestInitLoggingSetsLevelAndCaller(t *testing.T) {
 	// act plans a job on this logger, so a live task's secrets have to be masked out of it
 	require.IsType(t, report.MaskingFormatter(nil), log.StandardLogger().Formatter)
 }
+
+var errUnregisteredRunner = errors.New("rpc error: code = Unauthenticated desc = unregistered runner")
+
+type daemonTestService struct {
+	runnerv1connect.UnimplementedRunnerServiceHandler
+	declareErr, fetchErr error
+	beforeTask           bool
+	cancel               context.CancelFunc
+}
+
+func (s *daemonTestService) Declare(context.Context, *connect.Request[runnerv1.DeclareRequest]) (*connect.Response[runnerv1.DeclareResponse], error) {
+	if s.declareErr != nil {
+		return nil, s.declareErr
+	}
+	return connect.NewResponse(&runnerv1.DeclareResponse{Runner: &runnerv1.Runner{Name: "test"}}), nil
+}
+
+func (s *daemonTestService) FetchTask(context.Context, *connect.Request[runnerv1.FetchTaskRequest]) (*connect.Response[runnerv1.FetchTaskResponse], error) {
+	if s.fetchErr != nil {
+		return nil, s.fetchErr
+	}
+	if s.beforeTask {
+		s.cancel()
+		return nil, context.Canceled
+	}
+	return connect.NewResponse(&runnerv1.FetchTaskResponse{Task: &runnerv1.Task{Id: 1, Context: &structpb.Struct{}, WorkflowPayload: []byte("invalid: [")}}), nil
+}
+
+func (*daemonTestService) UpdateTask(_ context.Context, req *connect.Request[runnerv1.UpdateTaskRequest]) (*connect.Response[runnerv1.UpdateTaskResponse], error) {
+	return connect.NewResponse(&runnerv1.UpdateTaskResponse{State: req.Msg.State}), nil
+}
+
+func (*daemonTestService) UpdateLog(_ context.Context, req *connect.Request[runnerv1.UpdateLogRequest]) (*connect.Response[runnerv1.UpdateLogResponse], error) {
+	return connect.NewResponse(&runnerv1.UpdateLogResponse{AckIndex: req.Msg.Index + int64(len(req.Msg.Rows))}), nil
+}
+
+func TestDaemonRemovesOnlyConsumedEphemeralRegistration(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, tc := range []struct {
+		name                  string
+		ephemeral, beforeTask bool
+		declareErr, fetchErr  error
+		removed               bool
+	}{
+		{"ephemeral failed task", true, false, nil, nil, true},
+		{"ephemeral interrupted before task", true, true, nil, nil, false},
+		{"persistent once", false, false, nil, nil, false},
+		{"ephemeral rejected on fetch", true, false, nil, errUnregisteredRunner, true},
+		{"ephemeral proxy 401 on fetch", true, false, nil, connect.NewError(connect.CodeUnauthenticated, errors.New("HTTP status 401 Unauthorized")), false},
+		{"ephemeral rejected on declare", true, false, errUnregisteredRunner, nil, true},
+		{"persistent rejected on declare", false, false, errUnregisteredRunner, nil, false},
+	} {
+		t.Run(tc.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(t.Context(), 5*time.Second)
+			defer cancel()
+			_, handler := runnerv1connect.NewRunnerServiceHandler(&daemonTestService{declareErr: tc.declareErr, fetchErr: tc.fetchErr, beforeTask: tc.beforeTask, cancel: cancel})
+			server := httptest.NewServer(http.StripPrefix("/api/actions", handler))
+			defer server.Close()
+			dir := t.TempDir()
+			regFile := filepath.Join(dir, "registration.json")
+			configFile := filepath.Join(dir, "config.yaml")
+			require.NoError(t, os.WriteFile(configFile, []byte("runner:\n  file: "+regFile+"\n  idle_cleanup_interval: 0s\ncache:\n  enabled: false\n"), 0o600))
+			require.NoError(t, config.SaveRegistration(regFile, &config.Registration{Address: server.URL, UUID: "test", Name: "test", Token: "test", Labels: []string{"host:host"}, Ephemeral: tc.ephemeral}))
+			err := runDaemon(ctx, &daemonArgs{Once: true}, &configFile)(nil, nil)
+			if tc.declareErr == nil && tc.fetchErr == nil {
+				require.NoError(t, err)
+			} else {
+				require.Error(t, err)
+			}
+			if tc.removed {
+				require.NoFileExists(t, regFile)
+			} else {
+				require.FileExists(t, regFile)
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}

internal/app/cmd/exec.go

@@ -618,7 +618,7 @@ func loadExecCmd(ctx context.Context) *cobra.Command {
 	execCmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVarP(&execArg.noSkipCheckout, "no-skip-checkout", "", false, "Do not skip actions/checkout")
 	execCmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVarP(&execArg.debug, "debug", "d", false, "enable debug log")
 	execCmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVarP(&execArg.dryrun, "dryrun", "n", false, "dryrun mode")
-	execCmd.PersistentFlags().StringVarP(&execArg.image, "image", "i", config.DefaultImage, "Docker image to use. Use \"-self-hosted\" to run directly on the host.")
+	execCmd.PersistentFlags().StringVarP(&execArg.image, "image", "i", config.DefaultImage, "Docker image to use. Use \"kubernetes://<image>\" to run it as a pod, \"-self-hosted\" to run directly on the host.")
 	execCmd.PersistentFlags().StringVarP(&execArg.toolCacheMode, "tool-cache-mode", "", config.ToolCacheModeNone, "What to mount at RUNNER_TOOL_CACHE: none, or shared to reuse one tool cache across runs")
 	execCmd.PersistentFlags().StringVarP(&execArg.network, "network", "", "", "Specify the network to which the container will connect")
 	execCmd.PersistentFlags().StringVarP(&execArg.githubInstance, "gitea-instance", "", "", "Gitea instance to use.")

internal/app/cmd/register.go

@@ -12,7 +12,6 @@ import (
 	"os/signal"
 	goruntime "runtime"
 	"strings"
-	"time"
 
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/app/run"
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/client"
@@ -370,28 +369,12 @@ func doRegister(ctx context.Context, cfg *config.Config, inputs *registerInputs)
 		config.RequestTimeout,
 	)
 
-	for {
-		_, err := cli.Ping(ctx, connect.NewRequest(&pingv1.PingRequest{
-			Data: inputs.RunnerName,
-		}))
-		select {
-		case <-ctx.Done():
-			return ctx.Err()
-		default:
-		}
-		if ctx.Err() != nil {
-			break
-		}
-		if err != nil {
-			log.WithError(err).
-				Errorln("Cannot ping the Gitea instance server")
-			// TODO: if ping failed, retry or exit
-			time.Sleep(time.Second)
-		} else {
-			log.Debugln("Successfully pinged the Gitea instance server")
-			break
-		}
+	if _, err := cli.Ping(ctx, connect.NewRequest(&pingv1.PingRequest{
+		Data: inputs.RunnerName,
+	})); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("cannot ping the Gitea instance server: %w", err)
 	}
+	log.Debugln("Successfully pinged the Gitea instance server")
 
 	reg := &config.Registration{
 		Name:      inputs.RunnerName,

internal/app/cmd/register_test.go

@@ -4,7 +4,11 @@
 package cmd
 
 import (
+	"net/http"
+	"net/http/httptest"
 	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"sync/atomic"
 	"testing"
 
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/config"
@@ -246,3 +250,18 @@ func TestInitInputs(t *testing.T) {
 		require.Nil(t, inputs.Labels)
 	})
 }
+
+func TestDoRegisterReturnsPingErrorWithoutRetrying(t *testing.T) {
+	var requests atomic.Int32
+	server := httptest.NewServer(http.HandlerFunc(func(w http.ResponseWriter, _ *http.Request) {
+		requests.Add(1)
+		w.WriteHeader(http.StatusServiceUnavailable)
+	}))
+	defer server.Close()
+
+	cfg := &config.Config{}
+	cfg.Runner.File = filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), ".runner")
+	err := doRegister(t.Context(), cfg, &registerInputs{InstanceAddr: server.URL, RunnerName: "runner"})
+	assert.ErrorContains(t, err, "cannot ping the Gitea instance server")
+	assert.Equal(t, int32(1), requests.Load())
+}

internal/app/poll/poller.go

@@ -52,6 +52,8 @@ type Poller struct {
 
 	done chan struct{}
 
+	registrationRejected atomic.Bool
+
 	// unregistered is set when the server rejects the runner with an
 	// Unauthenticated response, meaning the runner is no longer registered.
 	unregistered       atomic.Bool
@@ -151,7 +153,7 @@ func (p *Poller) Poll() {
 	}
 }
 
-func (p *Poller) PollOnce() {
+func (p *Poller) PollOnce(onTaskFetched func()) {
 	defer close(p.done)
 	s := &workerState{}
 	for {
@@ -173,6 +175,7 @@ func (p *Poller) PollOnce() {
 			continue
 		}
 		s.resetBackoff()
+		onTaskFetched()
 		p.runTaskWithRecover(p.jobsCtx, task)
 		return
 	}
@@ -191,6 +194,11 @@ func (p *Poller) Unregistered() bool {
 	return p.unregistered.Load()
 }
 
+// RegistrationRejected reports whether polling stopped on an error matching client.IsRegistrationRejected.
+func (p *Poller) RegistrationRejected() bool {
+	return p.registrationRejected.Load()
+}
+
 // Ready reports whether the daemon can currently communicate with Gitea and
 // accept work, reusing the availability the poll loop last observed rather than
 // re-running the check. Transient transport failures are tolerated for grace.
@@ -368,9 +376,11 @@ func (p *Poller) fetchTask(ctx context.Context, s *workerState) (*runnerv1.Task,
 		// An Unauthenticated response means the server no longer knows this
 		// runner (e.g. it was deleted). Retrying forever is pointless, so stop
 		// polling and let the daemon exit with an error instead of spinning.
-		if isUnregistered(err) {
+		rejected := client.IsRegistrationRejected(err)
+		if rejected || connect.CodeOf(err) == connect.CodeUnauthenticated {
 			log.WithError(err).Error("server rejected the runner as unregistered, stopping poller")
 			p.unregistered.Store(true)
+			p.registrationRejected.Store(rejected)
 			p.shutdownPolling()
 			return nil, false
 		}
@@ -415,12 +425,6 @@ func (p *Poller) fetchTask(ctx context.Context, s *workerState) (*runnerv1.Task,
 	return resp.Msg.Task, true
 }
 
-func isUnregistered(err error) bool {
-	var connectErr *connect.Error
-	return errors.As(err, &connectErr) && (connectErr.Code() == connect.CodeUnauthenticated ||
-		connectErr.Code() == connect.CodeUnknown && connect.IsWireError(err) && connectErr.Message() == "rpc error: code = Unauthenticated desc = unregistered runner")
-}
-
 func (p *Poller) markHealthyPoll() {
 	p.lastHealthyPoll.Store(time.Now().UnixNano())
 	p.lastPollFailed.Store(false)

internal/app/poll/poller_test.go

@@ -106,13 +106,16 @@ func TestPoller_FetchTimeoutIsNoSignal(t *testing.T) {
 // response marks the runner as unregistered and cancels the polling context so
 // the daemon can exit instead of retrying forever.
 func TestPoller_FetchUnauthenticatedStopsPolling(t *testing.T) {
-	for name, fetchErr := range map[string]error{
-		"connect": connect_go.NewError(connect_go.CodeUnauthenticated, errors.New("unregistered runner")),
-		"gitea":   connect_go.NewWireError(connect_go.CodeUnknown, errors.New("rpc error: code = Unauthenticated desc = unregistered runner")),
+	for name, tc := range map[string]struct {
+		fetchErr error
+		rejected bool
+	}{
+		"connect": {connect_go.NewError(connect_go.CodeUnauthenticated, errors.New("unregistered runner")), false},
+		"gitea":   {connect_go.NewWireError(connect_go.CodeUnknown, errors.New("rpc error: code = Unauthenticated desc = unregistered runner")), true},
 	} {
 		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
 			client := mocks.NewClient(t)
-			client.On("FetchTask", mock.Anything, mock.Anything).Return(nil, fetchErr)
+			client.On("FetchTask", mock.Anything, mock.Anything).Return(nil, tc.fetchErr)
 
 			cfg, err := config.LoadDefault("")
 			require.NoError(t, err)
@@ -122,6 +125,7 @@ func TestPoller_FetchUnauthenticatedStopsPolling(t *testing.T) {
 			require.False(t, ok)
 
 			assert.True(t, p.Unregistered(), "runner should be marked unregistered")
+			assert.Equal(t, tc.rejected, p.RegistrationRejected())
 			assert.Equal(t, int64(0), s.consecutiveErrors, "unauthenticated must not drive error backoff")
 			select {
 			case <-p.pollingCtx.Done():
@@ -330,7 +334,7 @@ func TestPollerPollOnceCallsOnIdle(t *testing.T) {
 	poller := New(cfg, cli, runner)
 
 	var wg sync.WaitGroup
-	wg.Go(poller.PollOnce)
+	wg.Go(func() { poller.PollOnce(func() {}) })
 
 	require.Eventually(t, func() bool {
 		return runner.idleCalls.Load() > 0
@@ -342,6 +346,18 @@ func TestPollerPollOnceCallsOnIdle(t *testing.T) {
 	wg.Wait()
 }
 
+func TestPollerPollOnceCallsOnTaskFetchedBeforeRunningIt(t *testing.T) {
+	cli := mocks.NewClient(t)
+	cli.On("FetchTask", mock.Anything, mock.Anything).Return(connect_go.NewResponse(&runnerv1.FetchTaskResponse{Task: &runnerv1.Task{Id: 1}}), nil)
+	cfg, err := config.LoadDefault("")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	runner := &mockRunner{}
+	runsSeenByCallback := int64(-1)
+	New(cfg, cli, runner).PollOnce(func() { runsSeenByCallback = runner.running.Load() + runner.totalCompleted.Load() })
+	assert.Zero(t, runsSeenByCallback)
+	assert.Equal(t, int64(1), runner.totalCompleted.Load())
+}
+
 // TestPoller_ConcurrencyLimitedByCapacity verifies that with capacity=3 and
 // 6 available tasks, at most 3 tasks run concurrently, and FetchTask is
 // never called concurrently (single poller).

internal/app/run/runner.go

@@ -5,11 +5,14 @@ package run
 
 import (
 	"bytes"
+	"cmp"
 	"context"
+	"encoding/base64"
 	"encoding/json/v2"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"maps"
+	"net"
 	"net/http"
 	"net/netip"
 	"net/url"
@@ -34,6 +37,7 @@ import (
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/labels"
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/metrics"
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/report"
+	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/telemetry"
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/ver"
 
 	"connectrpc.com/connect"
@@ -41,6 +45,7 @@ import (
 	runnerv1 "gitea.dev/actionslib/runner/v1"
 	docker_container "github.com/moby/moby/api/types/container"
 	log "github.com/sirupsen/logrus"
+	"go.yaml.in/yaml/v4"
 )
 
 // CapabilityCancelling tells the server this runner understands the
@@ -68,7 +73,7 @@ type Runner struct {
 	cacheHandler *artifactcache.Handler
 	capabilities string
 
-	isolatedCacheNetwork func() string
+	isolatedCacheContainer func() string
 
 	runningTasks            sync.Map
 	runningCount            atomic.Int64
@@ -94,26 +99,23 @@ func NewRunner(cfg *config.Config, reg *config.Registration, cli client.Client)
 	maps.Copy(envs, cfg.Runner.Envs)
 	var cacheHandler *artifactcache.Handler
 	if cacheEnabled(cfg) {
-		if cfg.Cache.ExternalServer != "" {
-			warnIgnoredCachePolicy(cfg)
-			// The v1 client appends its path to this without a separator, so the slash is required.
-			envs["ACTIONS_CACHE_URL"] = strings.TrimRight(cfg.Cache.ExternalServer, "/") + "/"
+		warnIgnoredCachePolicy(cfg)
+		warnIgnoredCacheSecret(cfg)
+		handler, err := artifactcache.StartHandler(artifactcache.Options{
+			Dir:        cfg.Cache.Dir,
+			OutboundIP: cfg.Cache.Host,
+			Port:       cfg.Cache.Port,
+			Upstream:   cfg.Cache.ExternalServer,
+			S3:         cacheS3(cfg),
+			Policy:     CachePolicy(cfg),
+			Logger:     log.StandardLogger().WithField("module", "cache_request"),
+		})
+		if err != nil {
+			log.Errorf("cannot init cache server, it will be disabled: %v", err)
+			// go on
 		} else {
-			warnIgnoredCacheSecret(cfg)
-			handler, err := artifactcache.StartHandler(artifactcache.Options{
-				Dir:        cfg.Cache.Dir,
-				OutboundIP: cfg.Cache.Host,
-				Port:       cfg.Cache.Port,
-				Policy:     CachePolicy(cfg),
-				Logger:     log.StandardLogger().WithField("module", "cache_request"),
-			})
-			if err != nil {
-				log.Errorf("cannot init cache server, it will be disabled: %v", err)
-				// go on
-			} else {
-				cacheHandler = handler
-				envs["ACTIONS_CACHE_URL"] = handler.ExternalURL() + "/"
-			}
+			cacheHandler = handler
+			envs["ACTIONS_CACHE_URL"] = handler.ExternalURL() + "/"
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -137,7 +139,7 @@ func NewRunner(cfg *config.Config, reg *config.Registration, cli client.Client)
 		now:            time.Now,
 		runHealthCheck: executeHealthCheck,
 	}
-	runner.isolatedCacheNetwork = sync.OnceValue(runner.detectIsolatedCacheNetwork)
+	runner.isolatedCacheContainer = sync.OnceValue(runner.detectIsolatedCacheContainer)
 	return runner
 }
 
@@ -151,6 +153,8 @@ var removeOrphanNetworks = container.RemoveOrphanNetworks
 
 var removeOrphanJobVolumes = container.RemoveOrphanJobVolumes
 
+var removeOrphanKubernetesResources = container.RemoveOrphanKubernetesResources
+
 // OnIdle performs lightweight maintenance during polling idle windows.
 // It runs synchronously on the poller goroutine; shouldRunIdleCleanup
 // throttles invocations to runner.idle_cleanup_interval so the impact on
@@ -173,6 +177,13 @@ func (r *Runner) OnIdle(ctx context.Context) {
 		r.cleanupStaleDirs(ctx, hostRoot, isHostScratchDir)
 	}
 	r.cleanupOrphanDockerResources(ctx)
+	if r.uuid != "" && r.usesKubernetes() {
+		ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(ctx, time.Minute)
+		defer cancel()
+		if err := removeOrphanKubernetesResources(ctx, r.kubernetesOptions(nil), r.now().Add(-r.cfg.Runner.WorkdirCleanupAge)); err != nil {
+			log.Warnf("failed to clean up job pods left behind by earlier jobs: %v", err)
+		}
+	}
 }
 
 func (r *Runner) cleanupOrphanDockerResources(ctx context.Context) {
@@ -180,7 +191,7 @@ func (r *Runner) cleanupOrphanDockerResources(ctx context.Context) {
 		return
 	}
 	cutoff := r.now().Add(-r.cfg.Runner.WorkdirCleanupAge)
-	if err := removeOrphanNetworks(ctx, r.uuid, cutoff); err != nil {
+	if err := removeOrphanNetworks(ctx, r.uuid, r.isolatedCacheContainer(), cutoff); err != nil {
 		log.Warnf("failed to clean up networks left behind by earlier jobs: %v", err)
 	}
 	if err := removeOrphanJobVolumes(ctx, r.uuid, cutoff); err != nil {
@@ -297,6 +308,7 @@ func (r *Runner) Run(ctx context.Context, task *runnerv1.Task) error {
 
 	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(ctx, r.cfg.Runner.Timeout)
 	defer cancel()
+	ctx, endJob := telemetry.StartJob(ctx, task)
 	// A proxy URL may carry credentials, and every job is given it; keep them out of the log.
 	reporter := report.NewReporter(ctx, cancel, r.client, task, r.cfg, proxyPasswords()...)
 	var volumeCleanup []common.Executor
@@ -321,6 +333,7 @@ func (r *Runner) Run(ctx context.Context, task *runnerv1.Task) error {
 
 		metrics.JobDuration.Observe(time.Since(start).Seconds())
 		metrics.JobsTotal.WithLabelValues(metrics.ResultToStatusLabel(reporter.Result())).Inc()
+		endJob(reporter.Result())
 	}()
 	reporter.RunDaemon()
 	runErr = r.run(ctx, task, reporter)
@@ -347,6 +360,25 @@ func (r *Runner) cloneEnvs() map[string]string {
 	return envs
 }
 
+// restoreCalledWorkflowContext undoes Gitea's rewrite of `event_name` and `event.inputs` for older runners,
+// and returns the job's `inputs` from `gitea_workflow_call`, nil if it is not a called workflow's job.
+// See https://github.com/go-gitea/gitea/pull/39452
+func restoreCalledWorkflowContext(task *runnerv1.Task) map[string]any {
+	workflowCall := task.GetContext().GetFields()["gitea_workflow_call"].GetStructValue().GetFields()
+	if workflowCall == nil {
+		return nil
+	}
+	task.Context.Fields["event_name"] = workflowCall["original_event_name"]
+	if event := task.Context.Fields["event"].GetStructValue(); event != nil {
+		if inputs, ok := workflowCall["original_event_inputs"]; ok {
+			event.Fields["inputs"] = inputs
+		} else {
+			delete(event.Fields, "inputs")
+		}
+	}
+	return workflowCall["inputs"].GetStructValue().AsMap()
+}
+
 // getDefaultActionsURL
 // when DEFAULT_ACTIONS_URL == "https://github.com" and GithubMirror is not blank,
 // it should be set to GithubMirror first.
@@ -379,10 +411,36 @@ func (r *Runner) requiresDocker() bool {
 	return r.labels.RequireDocker() || r.cfg.Container.RequireDocker
 }
 
+func (r *Runner) usesKubernetes() bool {
+	return slices.ContainsFunc(r.labels, func(label *labels.Label) bool { return label.Schema == labels.SchemeKubernetes })
+}
+
+// kubernetesOptions layers the pod templates of the runner labels a job runs on, in runs-on order, over the shared one.
+func (r *Runner) kubernetesOptions(runsOn []string) container.KubernetesOptions {
+	options := container.KubernetesOptions{
+		Kubeconfig:   r.cfg.Kubernetes.Kubeconfig,
+		Namespace:    r.cfg.Kubernetes.Namespace,
+		PodTemplates: []map[string]any{r.cfg.Kubernetes.PodTemplate},
+		RunnerUUID:   r.uuid,
+	}
+	names := r.labels.Names()
+	for index, name := range runsOn {
+		if template, ok := r.cfg.Kubernetes.PodTemplates[name]; ok && slices.Contains(names, name) && !slices.Contains(runsOn[:index], name) {
+			options.PodTemplates = append(options.PodTemplates, template)
+		}
+	}
+	return options
+}
+
 // fallbackPlatform is where a job runs whose runs-on matches no label, as any job without a
 // runs-on does, since Gitea sends those to every runner.
 func (r *Runner) fallbackPlatform(ctx context.Context) string {
-	if r.requiresDocker() || dockerReachable(ctx) {
+	switch {
+	case r.requiresDocker():
+		return r.cfg.Runner.DefaultImage
+	case r.usesKubernetes():
+		return labels.SchemeKubernetes + "://" + r.cfg.Runner.DefaultImage
+	case dockerReachable(ctx):
 		return r.cfg.Runner.DefaultImage
 	}
 	return labels.SelfHostedPlatform
@@ -395,12 +453,17 @@ func (r *Runner) run(ctx context.Context, task *runnerv1.Task, reporter *report.
 		}
 	}()
 
+	workflowCallInputs := restoreCalledWorkflowContext(task)
 	r.reportSetup(reporter, task)
 
 	workflow, jobID, err := generateWorkflow(task)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
+	log.WithFields(taskLogFields(task, jobID)).
+		WithField("actions_url", r.getDefaultActionsURL(task)).
+		WithField("address", r.client.Address()).
+		Info("task started")
 
 	plan, err := model.CombineWorkflowPlanner(workflow).PlanJob(jobID)
 	if err != nil {
@@ -408,13 +471,36 @@ func (r *Runner) run(ctx context.Context, task *runnerv1.Task, reporter *report.
 	}
 	job := workflow.GetJob(jobID)
 	reporter.ResetSteps(len(job.Steps))
+	telemetry.SetJobName(ctx, cmp.Or(job.Name, jobID))
 
 	taskContext := task.Context.Fields
 	envs := r.cloneEnvs()
 
+	// act asks for the platform once per step, so resolve the fallback at most once per task.
+	fallbackPlatform := sync.OnceValue(func() string { return r.fallbackPlatform(ctx) })
+	platformPicker := func(runsOn []string) string {
+		if platform := r.labels.PickPlatform(runsOn); platform != "" {
+			return platform
+		}
+		return fallbackPlatform()
+	}
+	platform := platformPicker(job.RunsOn())
+	cacheURL, cacheContainer := r.cacheForJob(job, platform)
+	if cacheURL != "" {
+		envs["ACTIONS_CACHE_URL"] = cacheURL + "/"
+	}
+
 	// Added per task because this job's service containers must be reached directly, and
 	// act reaches them by their workflow key.
-	proxyEnv := JobProxyEnv(envs, r.builtInCacheURL(), slices.Sorted(maps.Keys(job.Services)))
+	var services map[string]yaml.Node
+	_ = job.RawServices.Decode(&services) // a whole-value expression names no service before evaluation
+	serviceNames := slices.Sorted(maps.Keys(services))
+	if strings.HasPrefix(platform, labels.SchemeKubernetes+"://") {
+		for index, name := range serviceNames {
+			serviceNames[index] = container.KubernetesServiceName(name)
+		}
+	}
+	proxyEnv := JobProxyEnv(envs, cacheURL, serviceNames)
 	maps.Copy(envs, proxyEnv)
 
 	if r.capabilities != "" {
@@ -423,29 +509,9 @@ func (r *Runner) run(ctx context.Context, task *runnerv1.Task, reporter *report.
 	if v := taskContext["run_id"].GetStringValue(); v != "" {
 		envs["GITEA_RUN_ID"] = v
 	}
+	telemetry.AddJobEnv(ctx, envs)
 
-	log.Infof("task %v repo is %v %v %v", task.Id, taskContext["repository"].GetStringValue(),
-		r.getDefaultActionsURL(task),
-		r.client.Address())
-
-	preset := &model.GithubContext{
-		Event:           taskContext["event"].GetStructValue().AsMap(),
-		RunID:           taskContext["run_id"].GetStringValue(),
-		RunNumber:       taskContext["run_number"].GetStringValue(),
-		RunAttempt:      taskContext["run_attempt"].GetStringValue(),
-		Actor:           taskContext["actor"].GetStringValue(),
-		Repository:      taskContext["repository"].GetStringValue(),
-		EventName:       taskContext["event_name"].GetStringValue(),
-		Sha:             taskContext["sha"].GetStringValue(),
-		Ref:             taskContext["ref"].GetStringValue(),
-		RefName:         taskContext["ref_name"].GetStringValue(),
-		RefType:         taskContext["ref_type"].GetStringValue(),
-		HeadRef:         taskContext["head_ref"].GetStringValue(),
-		BaseRef:         taskContext["base_ref"].GetStringValue(),
-		Token:           taskContext["token"].GetStringValue(),
-		RepositoryOwner: taskContext["repository_owner"].GetStringValue(),
-		RetentionDays:   taskContext["retention_days"].GetStringValue(),
-	}
+	preset := model.GithubContextFromMap(task.Context.AsMap())
 	if t := task.Secrets["GITEA_TOKEN"]; t != "" {
 		preset.Token = t
 	} else if t := task.Secrets["GITHUB_TOKEN"]; t != "" {
@@ -475,10 +541,8 @@ func (r *Runner) run(ctx context.Context, task *runnerv1.Task, reporter *report.
 	// cache requests from the job container can authenticate. The credential
 	// is removed when the task finishes, so a leaked token stops working as
 	// soon as the job ends rather than remaining valid for the runner's
-	// lifetime. Only applies to the embedded cache server; when the operator
-	// points the runner at an external cache via cfg.Cache.ExternalServer, it
-	// is that server's responsibility to authenticate requests.
-	revokeCache, resultsURL := r.registerCacheForTask(giteaRuntimeToken, preset.Repository, reporter)
+	// lifetime.
+	revokeCache, resultsURL := r.registerCacheForTask(giteaRuntimeToken, preset.Repository, cacheURL, reporter)
 	defer revokeCache()
 
 	eventJSON, err := json.Marshal(preset.Event)
@@ -511,20 +575,6 @@ func (r *Runner) run(ctx context.Context, task *runnerv1.Task, reporter *report.
 	// Without bind_workdir, the workspace path omits the task id; concurrent host-mode jobs
 	// for the same repository would share this directory and can race with per-job cleanup.
 
-	// act asks for the platform once per step, so resolve the fallback at most once per task.
-	fallbackPlatform := sync.OnceValue(func() string { return r.fallbackPlatform(ctx) })
-	platformPicker := func(runsOn []string) string {
-		if platform := r.labels.PickPlatform(runsOn); platform != "" {
-			return platform
-		}
-		return fallbackPlatform()
-	}
-
-	if resultsURL != "" && r.cacheIsolatedFrom(job, platformPicker) {
-		reporter.Logf("::warning::%s", runner.EscapeCommandData(fmt.Sprintf("jobs cannot reach the cache server at %s on docker network %q, so caching fails and artifacts go to Gitea directly, set cache.host and cache.port to an address jobs reach, or container.network to %[2]q",
-			r.cacheHandler.ExternalURL(), r.isolatedCacheNetwork())))
-		resultsURL = ""
-	}
 	r.setResultsService(envs, resultsURL)
 
 	runnerConfig := &runner.Config{
@@ -549,11 +599,13 @@ func (r *Runner) run(ctx context.Context, task *runnerv1.Task, reporter *report.
 		NoSkipCheckout:       true,
 		DisableActEnv:        r.cfg.Runner.SetActEnv != nil && !*r.cfg.Runner.SetActEnv,
 		PresetGitHubContext:  preset,
+		WorkflowCallInputs:   workflowCallInputs,
 		EventJSON:            string(eventJSON),
 		ContainerNamePrefix:  fmt.Sprintf("GITEA-ACTIONS-TASK-%d", task.Id),
 		ContainerMaxLifetime: maxLifetime,
 		CleanWorkdir:         true,
 		ContainerNetworkMode: docker_container.NetworkMode(r.cfg.Container.Network),
+		CacheContainer:       cacheContainer,
 		ContainerNetworkCreateOptions: container.NewDockerNetworkCreateExecutorInput{
 			EnableIPv4: r.cfg.Container.NetworkCreateOptions.EnableIPv4,
 			EnableIPv6: r.cfg.Container.NetworkCreateOptions.EnableIPv6,
@@ -575,6 +627,7 @@ func (r *Runner) run(ctx context.Context, task *runnerv1.Task, reporter *report.
 		SharedToolCache:                   r.cfg.Runner.ToolCacheMode == config.ToolCacheModeShared,
 		InsecureSkipTLS:                   r.cfg.Runner.Insecure,
 		RunnerName:                        r.name,
+		KubernetesPicker:                  r.kubernetesOptions,
 	}
 
 	rr, err := runner.New(runnerConfig)
@@ -651,32 +704,24 @@ func (r *Runner) instanceOutOfReach(instance string) bool {
 // function the caller must invoke (typically via defer) to revoke the
 // credential when the task finishes.
 //
-// Two modes:
-//   - Embedded handler: register in-process via RegisterJob.
-//   - external_server: POST to the remote server's /_internal/register, defer a
-//     POST to /_internal/revoke. This is what enables full per-job auth and
-//     repo scoping over the network.
-//
 // Safe with an empty token (older Gitea did not issue one).
-// It also returns the URL to advertise as ACTIONS_RESULTS_URL, which is the cache server itself
-// when it agreed to forward this instance's artifact service, and "" when it did not.
-func (r *Runner) registerCacheForTask(token, repo string, reporter *report.Reporter) (func(), string) {
-	if token == "" {
+// It also returns the URL to advertise as ACTIONS_RESULTS_URL.
+func (r *Runner) registerCacheForTask(token, repo, publicURL string, reporter *report.Reporter) (func(), string) {
+	if token == "" || r.cacheHandler == nil {
 		return func() {}, ""
 	}
 	cred := artifactcache.JobCredential{
 		Repo:        repo,
+		PublicURL:   publicURL,
 		Results:     r.envs["ACTIONS_RESULTS_URL"], // the instance as the job would reach it
 		InsecureTLS: r.cfg.Runner.Insecure,
 	}
-	if r.cacheHandler != nil {
-		return r.cacheHandler.RegisterJob(token, cred), r.cacheHandler.ResultsURL(cred)
+	revoke := r.cacheHandler.RegisterJob(token, cred)
+	if r.cfg.Cache.ExternalServer != "" {
+		revokeLocal, revokeExternal := revoke, r.registerExternalCacheJob(token, repo, publicURL, reporter)
+		revoke = func() { revokeLocal(); revokeExternal() }
 	}
-	if cacheEnabled(r.cfg) && r.cfg.Cache.ExternalServer != "" && r.cfg.Cache.ExternalSecret != "" {
-		return r.registerExternalCacheJob(token, cred, reporter)
-	}
-	// No cache server to register against: caching is disabled, or the built-in server failed to start.
-	return func() {}, ""
+	return revoke, r.cacheHandler.ResultsURL(cred)
 }
 
 // registerExternalCacheJob POSTs to the remote cache-server's control-plane.
@@ -684,23 +729,19 @@ func (r *Runner) registerCacheForTask(token, repo string, reporter *report.Repor
 // 401 the job's requests — better than failing the whole task for a cache
 // outage. The warning is mirrored to the job log so users can see why their
 // cache calls 401, instead of having to read the runner daemon's stderr.
-func (r *Runner) registerExternalCacheJob(token string, cred artifactcache.JobCredential, reporter *report.Reporter) (func(), string) {
+func (r *Runner) registerExternalCacheJob(token, repo, publicURL string, reporter *report.Reporter) func() {
 	base := strings.TrimRight(r.cfg.Cache.ExternalServer, "/")
-	resultsURL := ""
-	if body, err := postInternalCache(base+"/_internal/register", r.cfg.Cache.ExternalSecret, map[string]any{
-		"token": token, "repo": cred.Repo, "results": cred.Results, "insecure_tls": cred.InsecureTLS,
-		"public_url": base,
+	if err := postInternalCache(base+"/_internal/register", r.cfg.Cache.ExternalSecret, map[string]any{
+		"token": token, "repo": repo, "public_url": publicURL,
 	}); err != nil {
 		log.Warnf("cache external_server register failed (%s): %v", base, err)
 		if reporter != nil {
 			reporter.Logf("::warning::%s", runner.EscapeCommandData(fmt.Sprintf(
 				"cache external_server register failed (%s): %v — cache requests from this job will be unauthenticated and likely return 401", base, err)))
 		}
-	} else if forwarded, _ := body["results_url"].(string); forwarded != "" {
-		resultsURL = base // the answer only says it forwards, its own address need not be the job's
 	}
 	return func() {
-		if _, err := postInternalCache(base+"/_internal/revoke", r.cfg.Cache.ExternalSecret,
+		if err := postInternalCache(base+"/_internal/revoke", r.cfg.Cache.ExternalSecret,
 			map[string]any{"token": token}); err != nil {
 			log.Warnf("cache external_server revoke failed (%s): %v", base, err)
 			if reporter != nil {
@@ -708,33 +749,30 @@ func (r *Runner) registerExternalCacheJob(token string, cred artifactcache.JobCr
 					"cache external_server revoke failed (%s): %v", base, err)))
 			}
 		}
-	}, resultsURL
+	}
 }
 
-func postInternalCache(url, secret string, body map[string]any) (map[string]any, error) {
+func postInternalCache(url, secret string, body map[string]any) error {
 	buf, err := json.Marshal(body)
 	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
+		return err
 	}
 	req, err := http.NewRequest(http.MethodPost, url, bytes.NewReader(buf))
 	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
+		return err
 	}
 	req.Header.Set("Authorization", "Bearer "+secret)
 	req.Header.Set("Content-Type", "application/json")
 	client := &http.Client{Timeout: 5 * time.Second}
 	resp, err := client.Do(req)
 	if err != nil {
-		return nil, err
+		return err
 	}
 	defer resp.Body.Close()
 	if resp.StatusCode/100 != 2 {
-		return nil, fmt.Errorf("status %d", resp.StatusCode)
+		return fmt.Errorf("status %d", resp.StatusCode)
 	}
-	answer := map[string]any{}
-	// A server too old to answer with a body is not an error, it simply tells us nothing.
-	_ = json.UnmarshalRead(resp.Body, &answer)
-	return answer, nil
+	return nil
 }
 
 func (r *Runner) RunningCount() int64 {
@@ -830,12 +868,27 @@ func CachePolicy(cfg *config.Config) artifactcache.Policy {
 	}
 }
 
-// warnIgnoredCachePolicy flags eviction settings configured on a runner that points at an external cache server.
+func cacheS3(cfg *config.Config) *artifactcache.S3Options {
+	s3 := cfg.Cache.S3
+	if s3 == nil {
+		return nil
+	}
+	return &artifactcache.S3Options{
+		Endpoint: s3.Endpoint, Region: s3.Region, Bucket: s3.Bucket, Prefix: s3.Prefix,
+		PathStyle: s3.PathStyle, AccessKey: s3.AccessKey, SecretKey: s3.SecretKey,
+	}
+}
+
+// warnIgnoredCachePolicy flags eviction settings configured on a runner that does not apply them.
 func warnIgnoredCachePolicy(cfg *config.Config) {
 	defaults := config.DefaultCache()
-	if cfg.Cache.Retention != defaults.Retention || cfg.Cache.RepoSizeLimit != defaults.RepoSizeLimit ||
-		cfg.Cache.SizeLimit != defaults.SizeLimit || cfg.Cache.SweepInterval != defaults.SweepInterval {
+	limits := cfg.Cache.Retention != defaults.Retention || cfg.Cache.RepoSizeLimit != defaults.RepoSizeLimit ||
+		cfg.Cache.SizeLimit != defaults.SizeLimit
+	switch {
+	case cfg.Cache.ExternalServer != "" && (limits || cfg.Cache.SweepInterval != defaults.SweepInterval):
 		log.Warn("cache eviction settings are ignored when cache.external_server is set; configure them on that server instead")
+	case cfg.Cache.S3 != nil && limits:
+		log.Warn("cache eviction settings are ignored when cache.s3 is set; use lifecycle rules on the bucket instead")
 	}
 }
 
@@ -856,12 +909,22 @@ func warnIgnoredCacheSecret(cfg *config.Config) {
 	log.Warnf("%s is set but cache.external_server is not; the built-in cache server does not use a shared secret, so the value is ignored", key)
 }
 
-func (r *Runner) cacheIsolatedFrom(job *model.Job, pickPlatform func([]string) string) bool {
+// cacheForJob returns the cache address for the job, and the container to attach to its network to reach it there.
+func (r *Runner) cacheForJob(job *model.Job, platform string) (string, string) {
 	jobContainer := job.Container()
-	return (jobContainer != nil && jobContainer.Image != "" || pickPlatform(job.RunsOn()) != labels.SelfHostedPlatform) && r.isolatedCacheNetwork() != ""
+	cacheContainer := ""
+	if !strings.HasPrefix(platform, labels.SchemeKubernetes+"://") && (jobContainer != nil && jobContainer.Image != "" || platform != labels.SelfHostedPlatform) {
+		cacheContainer = r.isolatedCacheContainer()
+	}
+	if cacheContainer == "" {
+		return strings.TrimSuffix(r.builtInCacheURL(), "/"), ""
+	}
+	cacheURL, _ := url.Parse(r.cacheHandler.ExternalURL())
+	cacheURL.Host = net.JoinHostPort(cacheContainer, cacheURL.Port())
+	return cacheURL.String(), cacheContainer
 }
 
-func (r *Runner) detectIsolatedCacheNetwork() string {
+func (r *Runner) detectIsolatedCacheContainer() string {
 	if r.cacheHandler == nil {
 		return ""
 	}
@@ -871,9 +934,28 @@ func (r *Runner) detectIsolatedCacheNetwork() string {
 	}
 	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(context.Background(), 5*time.Second)
 	defer cancel()
-	network, err := container.IsolatedNetwork(ctx, addr, r.cfg.Container.Network)
+	cacheContainer, err := container.IsolatedCacheContainer(ctx, addr, r.cfg.Container.Network)
 	if err != nil {
 		log.Warnf("cannot check whether jobs reach the cache server: %v", err)
 	}
-	return network
+	return cacheContainer
+}
+
+func taskLogFields(task *runnerv1.Task, job string) log.Fields {
+	taskContext := task.GetContext().GetFields()
+	fields := log.Fields{
+		"task_id":    task.Id,
+		"job":        job,
+		"repository": taskContext["repository"].GetStringValue(),
+		"run_id":     taskContext["run_id"].GetStringValue(),
+		"run_number": taskContext["run_number"].GetStringValue(),
+	}
+	if parts := strings.Split(taskContext["gitea_runtime_token"].GetStringValue(), "."); len(parts) == 3 {
+		var claims struct{ JobID int64 } // Gitea's actionsClaims fields are untagged, so the claim key is "JobID"
+		payload, err := base64.RawURLEncoding.DecodeString(parts[1])
+		if err == nil && json.Unmarshal(payload, &claims) == nil && claims.JobID > 0 {
+			fields["job_id"] = claims.JobID
+		}
+	}
+	return fields
 }

internal/app/run/runner_cache_test.go

@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/artifactcache"
+	clientmocks "gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/client/mocks"
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/config"
 
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
@@ -23,54 +24,13 @@ import (
 
 func emptyCfg() *config.Config { return &config.Config{} }
 
-func TestRunner_registerCacheForTask(t *testing.T) {
-	dir := filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "artifactcache")
-	handler, err := artifactcache.StartHandler(artifactcache.Options{Dir: dir, OutboundIP: "127.0.0.1"})
-	require.NoError(t, err)
-	defer handler.Close()
-
-	r := &Runner{cfg: emptyCfg(), cacheHandler: handler}
-	token := "run-token-123"
-	unregister, _ := r.registerCacheForTask(token, "owner/repo", nil)
-
-	base := handler.ExternalURL() + "/_apis/artifactcache"
-	probe := func() int {
-		req, err := http.NewRequest(http.MethodGet, base+"/cache?keys=x&version=v", nil)
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-		req.Header.Set("Authorization", "Bearer "+token)
-		resp, err := http.DefaultClient.Do(req)
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-		resp.Body.Close()
-		return resp.StatusCode
-	}
-
-	assert.NotEqual(t, http.StatusUnauthorized, probe(),
-		"token should be accepted while task is registered")
-
-	unregister()
-	assert.Equal(t, http.StatusUnauthorized, probe(),
-		"token must be rejected after the revoker runs")
-}
-
 func TestRunner_registerCacheForTask_NoOps(t *testing.T) {
-	t.Run("nil cacheHandler", func(t *testing.T) {
-		r := &Runner{cfg: emptyCfg()}
-		unregister, _ := r.registerCacheForTask("tok", "owner/repo", nil)
-		require.NotNil(t, unregister)
-		unregister()
-	})
-
-	t.Run("empty token", func(t *testing.T) {
-		dir := filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "artifactcache")
-		handler, err := artifactcache.StartHandler(artifactcache.Options{Dir: dir, OutboundIP: "127.0.0.1"})
-		require.NoError(t, err)
-		defer handler.Close()
-
+	for token, handler := range map[string]*artifactcache.Handler{"tok": nil, "": {}} {
 		r := &Runner{cfg: emptyCfg(), cacheHandler: handler}
-		unregister, _ := r.registerCacheForTask("", "owner/repo", nil)
-		require.NotNil(t, unregister)
+		unregister, _ := r.registerCacheForTask(token, "owner/repo", "", nil)
+		require.NotNil(t, unregister, token)
 		unregister()
-	})
+	}
 }
 
 // Locks in @actions/cache's wire protocol: bearer on reserve/upload/commit
@@ -81,10 +41,11 @@ func TestRunner_CacheFullFlow_MatchesToolkit(t *testing.T) {
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer handler.Close()
 
-	r := &Runner{cfg: emptyCfg(), cacheHandler: handler}
+	r := &Runner{cfg: emptyCfg(), cacheHandler: handler, envs: map[string]string{"ACTIONS_RESULTS_URL": "https://gitea.example"}}
+	const publicURL = "http://a1b2c3d4e5f6:8088"
 	token := "full-flow-token"
-	unregister, _ := r.registerCacheForTask(token, "owner/repo", nil)
-	defer unregister()
+	unregister, resultsURL := r.registerCacheForTask(token, "owner/repo", publicURL, nil)
+	assert.Equal(t, publicURL, resultsURL)
 
 	base := handler.ExternalURL() + "/_apis/artifactcache"
 	do := func(method, url, contentType, contentRange, body string) *http.Response {
@@ -137,17 +98,22 @@ func TestRunner_CacheFullFlow_MatchesToolkit(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 	require.NoError(t, decodeJSON(resp, &hit))
 	require.Equal(t, key, hit.CacheKey)
-	require.NotEmpty(t, hit.ArchiveLocation)
+	require.True(t, strings.HasPrefix(hit.ArchiveLocation, publicURL+"/"), hit.ArchiveLocation)
 
 	// download — toolkit does NOT attach Authorization here; the signature
 	// in the URL must be enough.
-	dl, err := http.Get(hit.ArchiveLocation)
+	dl, err := http.Get(strings.Replace(hit.ArchiveLocation, publicURL, handler.ExternalURL(), 1))
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer dl.Body.Close()
 	require.Equal(t, http.StatusOK, dl.StatusCode)
 	got := make([]byte, 64)
 	n, _ := dl.Body.Read(got)
 	assert.Equal(t, body, string(got[:n]))
+
+	unregister()
+	resp = do(http.MethodGet, fmt.Sprintf("%s/cache?keys=%s&version=%s", base, key, version), "", "", "")
+	resp.Body.Close()
+	assert.Equal(t, http.StatusUnauthorized, resp.StatusCode)
 }
 
 func decodeJSON(resp *http.Response, v any) error {
@@ -155,33 +121,38 @@ func decodeJSON(resp *http.Response, v any) error {
 	return json.UnmarshalRead(resp.Body, v)
 }
 
-// End-to-end against a remote cache-server: token unknown → 401, register →
-// reserve/upload/commit/find/download all OK, revoke → 401 again. Registering also names the
-// instance and the address its jobs reach the server at, which makes a shared cache server the
-// whole results service, as the built-in one is.
+// End-to-end through a runner to a remote cache-server: token unknown → 401, register →
+// reserve/upload/commit/find/download all OK, revoke → 401 again.
 func TestRunner_ExternalCacheServer_RegisterRevoke(t *testing.T) {
-	dir := filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "remote-cache")
 	const secret = "shared-secret-for-tests"
-	remote, err := artifactcache.StartHandler(artifactcache.Options{Dir: dir, OutboundIP: "127.0.0.2", InternalSecret: secret}) // advertised, never dialled
+	remote, err := artifactcache.StartHandler(artifactcache.Options{Dir: t.TempDir(), OutboundIP: "127.0.0.1", InternalSecret: secret})
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer remote.Close()
-	external := strings.Replace(remote.ExternalURL(), "127.0.0.2", "127.0.0.1", 1)
-	gitea := httptest.NewServer(http.HandlerFunc(func(w http.ResponseWriter, _ *http.Request) {
+	gitea := httptest.NewTLSServer(http.HandlerFunc(func(w http.ResponseWriter, req *http.Request) {
+		assert.Equal(t, "/twirp/github.actions.results.api.v1.ArtifactService/CreateArtifact", req.URL.Path)
+		assert.Equal(t, "Bearer external-task-token", req.Header.Get("Authorization"))
 		_, _ = io.WriteString(w, `{"ok":true}`)
 	}))
 	defer gitea.Close()
 
-	r := &Runner{
-		cfg: &config.Config{Cache: config.Cache{
-			ExternalServer: external,
+	cli := clientmocks.NewClient(t)
+	cli.AddressValue = gitea.URL
+	r := NewRunner(&config.Config{
+		Runner: config.Runner{Insecure: true},
+		Cache: config.Cache{
+			Host:           "127.0.0.1",
+			ExternalServer: remote.ExternalURL() + "//",
 			ExternalSecret: secret,
-		}},
-		envs: map[string]string{"ACTIONS_RESULTS_URL": gitea.URL},
-	}
+		},
+	}, &config.Registration{}, cli)
+	t.Cleanup(func() { _ = r.Close() })
+	require.NotNil(t, r.cacheHandler)
+	require.Equal(t, r.cacheHandler.ExternalURL()+"/", r.envs["ACTIONS_CACHE_URL"])
 
+	const publicURL = "http://a1b2c3d4e5f6:8088"
 	token := "external-task-token"
 	repo := "owner/repoX"
-	base := external + "/_apis/artifactcache"
+	base := r.envs["ACTIONS_CACHE_URL"] + "_apis/artifactcache"
 	probe := func() int {
 		req, _ := http.NewRequest(http.MethodGet, base+"/cache?keys=k&version=v", nil)
 		req.Header.Set("Authorization", "Bearer "+token)
@@ -194,30 +165,24 @@ func TestRunner_ExternalCacheServer_RegisterRevoke(t *testing.T) {
 	require.Equal(t, http.StatusUnauthorized, probe(),
 		"token must be unknown to the remote server before registration")
 
-	disabled := &Runner{cfg: &config.Config{Cache: config.Cache{
-		Enabled: new(bool), ExternalServer: external, ExternalSecret: secret,
-	}}}
-	disabled.registerCacheForTask(token, repo, nil)
-	require.Equal(t, http.StatusUnauthorized, probe(),
-		"a disabled cache registers nothing, whatever external server is left configured")
-
-	unregister, resultsURL := r.registerCacheForTask(token, repo, nil)
+	unregister, resultsURL := r.registerCacheForTask(token, repo, publicURL, nil)
 	require.NotEqual(t, http.StatusUnauthorized, probe(),
 		"token must be accepted after registerCacheForTask")
 
-	// The server took the results service over, so the artifact half reaches Gitea through it.
-	require.Equal(t, external, resultsURL)
+	require.Equal(t, publicURL, resultsURL)
 	artifact, err := http.NewRequestWithContext(t.Context(), http.MethodPost,
-		resultsURL+"/twirp/github.actions.results.api.v1.ArtifactService/CreateArtifact", nil)
+		r.cacheHandler.ExternalURL()+"/twirp/github.actions.results.api.v1.ArtifactService/CreateArtifact", nil)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	artifact.Header.Set("Authorization", "Bearer "+token)
 	forwarded, err := http.DefaultClient.Do(artifact)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
-	forwarded.Body.Close()
 	require.Equal(t, http.StatusOK, forwarded.StatusCode)
+	var artifactResult map[string]bool
+	require.NoError(t, decodeJSON(forwarded, &artifactResult))
+	assert.True(t, artifactResult["ok"])
 
 	// Full reserve→upload→commit→find→download cycle, identical to what
-	// @actions/cache does, against the remote (external) server.
+	// @actions/cache does, through the runner to the remote server.
 	body := []byte("payload-from-task")
 	reserveBody, _ := json.Marshal(&artifactcache.Request{Key: "ext-key", Version: "v", Size: int64(len(body))})
 	req, _ := http.NewRequest(http.MethodPost, base+"/caches", bytes.NewReader(reserveBody))
@@ -256,14 +221,22 @@ func TestRunner_ExternalCacheServer_RegisterRevoke(t *testing.T) {
 		ArchiveLocation string `json:"archiveLocation"`
 	}
 	require.NoError(t, decodeJSON(resp, &hit))
-	require.True(t, strings.HasPrefix(hit.ArchiveLocation, external), hit.ArchiveLocation)
+	require.True(t, strings.HasPrefix(hit.ArchiveLocation, publicURL+"/"), hit.ArchiveLocation)
 
-	dl, err := http.Get(hit.ArchiveLocation)
+	dl, err := http.Get(strings.Replace(hit.ArchiveLocation, publicURL, r.cacheHandler.ExternalURL(), 1))
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer dl.Body.Close()
 	require.Equal(t, http.StatusOK, dl.StatusCode)
+	downloaded, err := io.ReadAll(dl.Body)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Equal(t, body, downloaded)
 
 	unregister()
 	assert.Equal(t, http.StatusUnauthorized, probe(),
 		"token must be rejected after the revoker runs")
+
+	forwarded, err = http.DefaultClient.Do(artifact)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	forwarded.Body.Close()
+	assert.Equal(t, http.StatusUnauthorized, forwarded.StatusCode)
 }

internal/app/run/runner_idle_cleanup_test.go

@@ -11,7 +11,9 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 	"time"
 
+	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/container"
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/config"
+	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/labels"
 
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
@@ -311,11 +313,13 @@ func TestRunnerOnIdleRemovesOrphanNetworks(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	var swept []string
+	var detached []string
 	var sweptVolumes []string
 	var sweptCutoff time.Time
 	origRemoveOrphanNetworks := removeOrphanNetworks
-	removeOrphanNetworks = func(_ context.Context, runnerUUID string, createdBefore time.Time) error {
+	removeOrphanNetworks = func(_ context.Context, runnerUUID, detach string, createdBefore time.Time) error {
 		swept = append(swept, runnerUUID)
+		detached = append(detached, detach)
 		sweptCutoff = createdBefore
 		return nil
 	}
@@ -327,8 +331,21 @@ func TestRunnerOnIdleRemovesOrphanNetworks(t *testing.T) {
 		return nil
 	}
 	t.Cleanup(func() { removeOrphanJobVolumes = origRemoveOrphanJobVolumes })
+	var sweptPods []string
+	origRemoveOrphanKubernetesResources := removeOrphanKubernetesResources
+	removeOrphanKubernetesResources = func(ctx context.Context, options container.KubernetesOptions, createdBefore time.Time) error {
+		_, hasDeadline := ctx.Deadline()
+		assert.True(t, hasDeadline)
+		sweptPods = append(sweptPods, options.RunnerUUID)
+		assert.Equal(t, now.Add(-24*time.Hour), createdBefore)
+		return nil
+	}
+	t.Cleanup(func() { removeOrphanKubernetesResources = origRemoveOrphanKubernetesResources })
+	kubernetesLabel, err := labels.Parse("k8s:kubernetes://node")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
 
-	r := &Runner{uuid: "runner-1", cfg: cfg, now: func() time.Time { return now }}
+	r := &Runner{uuid: "runner-1", cfg: cfg, labels: labels.Labels{kubernetesLabel}, now: func() time.Time { return now }}
+	r.isolatedCacheContainer = func() string { return "a1b2c3d4e5f6" }
 	r.OnIdle(context.Background())
 	assert.Equal(t, []string{"runner-1"}, swept)
 	assert.Equal(t, swept, sweptVolumes)
@@ -340,6 +357,7 @@ func TestRunnerOnIdleRemovesOrphanNetworks(t *testing.T) {
 	dockerReachable = func(context.Context) bool { return false }
 	t.Cleanup(func() { dockerReachable = origDockerReachable })
 	hostOnly := &Runner{uuid: "runner-2", cfg: &config.Config{Runner: cfg.Runner}, now: func() time.Time { return now }}
+	hostOnly.isolatedCacheContainer = func() string { return "" }
 	hostOnly.OnIdle(context.Background())
 	assert.Equal(t, []string{"runner-1"}, swept)
 	assert.Equal(t, swept, sweptVolumes)
@@ -348,4 +366,6 @@ func TestRunnerOnIdleRemovesOrphanNetworks(t *testing.T) {
 	now = now.Add(time.Minute)
 	hostOnly.OnIdle(context.Background())
 	assert.Equal(t, []string{"runner-1", "runner-2"}, sweptVolumes)
+	assert.Equal(t, []string{"a1b2c3d4e5f6", ""}, detached)
+	assert.Equal(t, []string{"runner-1"}, sweptPods)
 }

internal/app/run/runner_test.go

@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ package run
 
 import (
 	"context"
+	"encoding/base64"
 	"io"
 	"net/http"
 	"net/http/httptest"
@@ -26,6 +27,7 @@ import (
 	"connectrpc.com/connect"
 	"gitea.dev/actionslib/pkg/model"
 	runnerv1 "gitea.dev/actionslib/runner/v1"
+	log "github.com/sirupsen/logrus"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/mock"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
@@ -243,6 +245,16 @@ func TestRunnerFallbackPlatform(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+func TestRunnerKubernetesOptionsLayerTheLabelPodTemplatesInRunsOnOrder(t *testing.T) {
+	cfg := &config.Config{Kubernetes: config.Kubernetes{
+		PodTemplate:  map[string]any{"base": true},
+		PodTemplates: map[string]map[string]any{"gpu": {"gpu": true}, "large": {"large": true}, "other": {"other": true}},
+	}}
+	r := &Runner{cfg: cfg, labels: labels.Labels{{Name: "linux"}, {Name: "gpu"}, {Name: "large"}}}
+
+	require.Equal(t, []map[string]any{{"base": true}, {"large": true}, {"gpu": true}}, r.kubernetesOptions([]string{"linux", "large", "other", "gpu", "large"}).PodTemplates)
+}
+
 // Proxy variables are assembled per task, because a job's service containers have to be
 // reached directly and they are only known once the workflow is parsed.
 func TestNewRunnerLeavesProxyToTheTask(t *testing.T) {
@@ -251,15 +263,19 @@ func TestNewRunnerLeavesProxyToTheTask(t *testing.T) {
 
 	cfg := &config.Config{}
 	cfg.Cache.ExternalServer = "http://cache.local:8088/"
+	cfg.Cache.Host = "runner.local"
 	reg := &config.Registration{Name: "runner"}
 	cli := clientmocks.NewClient(t)
 	cli.AddressValue = "https://gitea.example/"
 
 	r := NewRunner(cfg, reg, cli)
+	t.Cleanup(func() { _ = r.Close() })
 
 	require.NotContains(t, r.envs, "http_proxy")
 	require.NotContains(t, r.envs, "no_proxy")
-	assert.Empty(t, r.builtInCacheURL(), "an external cache server is the operator's to exempt, not ours")
+	proxyEnv := JobProxyEnv(r.envs, r.builtInCacheURL(), nil)
+	assert.Contains(t, proxyEnv["no_proxy"], "runner.local")
+	assert.NotContains(t, proxyEnv["no_proxy"], "cache.local")
 }
 
 func taskWithDefaultActionsURL(url string) *runnerv1.Task {
@@ -289,7 +305,7 @@ func TestNewRunnerCacheServiceV2(t *testing.T) {
 
 	// The registration is what makes it true: the cache server takes the results service over,
 	// having been told which instance to forward the artifact half to.
-	revoke, resultsURL := r.registerCacheForTask(token, "owner/repo", nil)
+	revoke, resultsURL := r.registerCacheForTask(token, "owner/repo", r.cacheHandler.ExternalURL(), nil)
 	defer revoke()
 	require.Equal(t, r.cacheHandler.ExternalURL(), resultsURL)
 
@@ -341,26 +357,73 @@ func TestNewRunnerCacheServiceV2(t *testing.T) {
 
 	workflow, err := model.ReadWorkflow(strings.NewReader(`jobs: {native: {runs-on: native}, linux: {runs-on: linux}, containerized: {runs-on: native, container: alpine}, empty: {runs-on: native, container: ""}}`))
 	require.NoError(t, err)
-	r.isolatedCacheNetwork = func() string { return "compose" }
+	r.isolatedCacheContainer = func() string { return "a1b2c3d4e5f6" }
 	pickPlatform := func(runsOn []string) string { return map[string]string{"native": labels.SelfHostedPlatform}[runsOn[0]] }
 	for job, isolated := range map[string]bool{"native": false, "linux": true, "containerized": true, "empty": false} {
-		assert.Equal(t, isolated, r.cacheIsolatedFrom(workflow.GetJob(job), pickPlatform), job)
+		cacheURL, cacheContainer := r.cacheForJob(workflow.GetJob(job), pickPlatform(workflow.GetJob(job).RunsOn()))
+		if isolated {
+			assert.Equal(t, "a1b2c3d4e5f6", cacheContainer, job)
+			assert.Equal(t, strings.Replace(r.cacheHandler.ExternalURL(), "127.0.0.1", cacheContainer, 1), cacheURL, job)
+		} else {
+			assert.Empty(t, cacheContainer, job)
+			assert.Equal(t, r.cacheHandler.ExternalURL(), cacheURL, job)
+		}
 	}
 }
 
-// The v1 cache client appends its path to ACTIONS_CACHE_URL without a separator, so a configured
-// server that is missing the slash would send it to a URL whose port swallows the path.
-func TestNewRunnerNormalizesTheExternalCacheServer(t *testing.T) {
-	cfg := &config.Config{}
-	cfg.Cache.ExternalServer = "http://cache.local:8088//"
-	cli := clientmocks.NewClient(t)
-	cli.AddressValue = "https://gitea.example/"
+func TestRestoreCalledWorkflowContext(t *testing.T) {
+	newTask := func(workflowCall map[string]any) *runnerv1.Task {
+		values := map[string]any{
+			"event_name": "workflow_call",
+			"event":      map[string]any{"ref": "refs/heads/main", "inputs": map[string]any{"env": "leaf"}},
+		}
+		if workflowCall != nil {
+			values["gitea_workflow_call"] = workflowCall
+		}
+		taskCtx, err := structpb.NewStruct(values)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		return &runnerv1.Task{Context: taskCtx}
+	}
 
-	r := NewRunner(cfg, &config.Registration{Name: "runner"}, cli)
+	t.Run("dispatched run", func(t *testing.T) {
+		task := newTask(map[string]any{
+			"original_event_name":   "workflow_dispatch",
+			"original_event_inputs": map[string]any{"target": "prod"},
+			"inputs":                map[string]any{"target": "prod", "env": "leaf"},
+		})
+		assert.Equal(t, map[string]any{"target": "prod", "env": "leaf"}, restoreCalledWorkflowContext(task))
+		taskCtx := task.Context.AsMap()
+		assert.Equal(t, "workflow_dispatch", taskCtx["event_name"])
+		assert.Equal(t, map[string]any{"ref": "refs/heads/main", "inputs": map[string]any{"target": "prod"}}, taskCtx["event"])
+		assert.Equal(t, []string{"::group::Inputs", "env: leaf", "target: prod", "::endgroup::"}, inputLines(task.Context.Fields))
+	})
 
-	assert.Equal(t, "http://cache.local:8088/", r.envs["ACTIONS_CACHE_URL"])
-	// Nothing to front the results service with, so the variable stays unset and the client keeps
-	// to v1, which reads the cache URL first.
-	assert.Equal(t, "https://gitea.example", r.envs["ACTIONS_RESULTS_URL"])
-	assert.Empty(t, r.envs[runner.CacheServiceV2Env])
+	t.Run("event without inputs", func(t *testing.T) {
+		task := newTask(map[string]any{
+			"original_event_name": "push",
+			"inputs":              map[string]any{"env": "leaf"},
+		})
+		assert.Equal(t, map[string]any{"env": "leaf"}, restoreCalledWorkflowContext(task))
+		taskCtx := task.Context.AsMap()
+		assert.Equal(t, "push", taskCtx["event_name"])
+		assert.Equal(t, map[string]any{"ref": "refs/heads/main"}, taskCtx["event"])
+	})
+
+	t.Run("not a called workflow's job", func(t *testing.T) {
+		task := newTask(nil)
+		assert.Nil(t, restoreCalledWorkflowContext(task))
+		assert.Equal(t, "workflow_call", task.Context.AsMap()["event_name"])
+	})
+}
+
+func TestTaskLogFields(t *testing.T) {
+	fields := func(token string) log.Fields {
+		taskContext, err := structpb.NewStruct(map[string]any{"repository": "owner/repo", "run_id": "159", "run_number": "14", "gitea_runtime_token": token})
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		return taskLogFields(&runnerv1.Task{Id: 72, Context: taskContext}, "build")
+	}
+	want := log.Fields{"task_id": int64(72), "job": "build", "repository": "owner/repo", "run_id": "159", "run_number": "14"}
+	assert.Equal(t, want, fields("malformed"))
+	want["job_id"] = int64(221)
+	assert.Equal(t, want, fields("header."+base64.RawURLEncoding.EncodeToString([]byte(`{"TaskID":72,"JobID":221}`))+".signature"))
 }

internal/app/run/setup.go

@@ -56,10 +56,15 @@ func (r *Runner) setupLines(task *runnerv1.Task) []string {
 	return append(lines, "::endgroup::")
 }
 
-// inputLines lists the inputs the run was triggered with, as workflow_dispatch and workflow_call
-// carry them in the event payload. Empty when the event has none.
+// inputLines lists the inputs of the job: those Gitea resolved for a called workflow's job,
+// or the ones a workflow_dispatch event carries in its payload. Empty when there are none.
 func inputLines(fields map[string]*structpb.Value) []string {
 	inputs := fields["event"].GetStructValue().GetFields()["inputs"].GetStructValue().GetFields()
+	// For a called workflow's job, restore its inputs from `gitea_workflow_call`.
+	// See https://github.com/go-gitea/gitea/pull/39452.
+	if workflowCall := fields["gitea_workflow_call"].GetStructValue(); workflowCall != nil {
+		inputs = workflowCall.GetFields()["inputs"].GetStructValue().GetFields()
+	}
 	if len(inputs) == 0 {
 		return nil
 	}

internal/app/run/workflow.go

@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ import (
 )
 
 func generateWorkflow(task *runnerv1.Task) (*model.Workflow, string, error) {
-	workflow, err := model.ReadWorkflow(bytes.NewReader(task.WorkflowPayload))
+	workflow, err := model.ReadWorkflowPayload(bytes.NewReader(task.WorkflowPayload))
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, "", err
 	}

internal/pkg/action/action.go

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+// Copyright 2026 The Gitea Authors. All rights reserved.
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+
+// Package action holds the native actions run by `uses: builtin:<name>`.
+package action
+
+import (
+	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/container"
+
+	"gitea.dev/actionslib/pkg/model"
+)
+
+type Context struct {
+	Container       container.ExecutionsEnvironment
+	Github          *model.GithubContext
+	Inputs          map[string]string
+	HostWorkdir     string
+	Workspace       string // HostWorkdir as seen inside Container
+	BindWorkdir     bool
+	NoSkipCheckout  bool
+	UseGitIgnore    bool
+	InsecureSkipTLS bool
+}