fix: align Docker actions, job env and host mode with GitHub (#1268 )

- Docker actions evaluate `runs.args` and `runs.env` with their own `inputs`, so a same-named `workflow_dispatch` input no longer replaces the step's `with:` value - Dockerfile action images are tagged per step and job and removed afterwards, so changed Dockerfiles rebuild and concurrent jobs never share an image - Workflow and job `env` are evaluated before job and service container credentials and service `env` use them - Docker actions in host jobs get the host workspace and file-command directory mounted, and no longer inherit the runner's own `PATH` - Cache server address detection accepts a single interface address Fixes: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/390 Fixes: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/406 Fixes: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/578 Related: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/64 Reviewed-on: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/pulls/1268 Reviewed-by: bircni <[email protected]> Co-authored-by: silverwind <[email protected]>
fix: drop stalled HTTP/2 connections in action clones (#1266 )
2026-11-13 11:23:42 +00:00 · 2026-10-01 19:45:13 +00:00 · 2026-10-01 16:48:19 +00:00 · 2026-10-01 16:01:14 +00:00 · 2026-10-01 13:22:25 +00:00 · 2026-10-01 12:55:16 +00:00
73 changed files with 3093 additions and 468 deletions
@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ PODMAN_TEST_IMAGE ?= quay.io/containers/podman:v5.8.4-immutable@sha256:90405e3c6
 E2E_JOB_IMAGE ?= node:24-bookworm@sha256:64af3819f9275802414d7cdc38c27e9d82bd564dec4d4da87d008255d36c63b4 # renovate: datasource=docker
 SERVICE_IMAGE ?= nginx:1.31.4-alpine@sha256:db35bfc6b2951e7f8a72db5db120288c127ffaeeb4a6d4b95a26fead017d5913 # renovate: datasource=docker
 E2E_GITEA_IMAGE ?= gitea/gitea:main-nightly
+E2E_K3S_IMAGE ?= rancher/k3s:v1.36.4-k3s1@sha256:edad48e12bf81c3a09ac1c05c0c0ffaaa22145980b989d6fae84543a76b83657 # renovate: datasource=docker

 LINUX_ARCHS ?= linux/amd64,linux/arm64
 DARWIN_ARCHS ?= darwin-12/amd64,darwin-12/arm64
@@ -170,7 +171,7 @@ E2E_CONCURRENCY ?= 8

 .PHONY: test-e2e
 test-e2e: ## run Gitea compatibility tests against E2E_GITEA_IMAGE
-	@E2E_CONCURRENCY=$(E2E_CONCURRENCY) E2E_GITEA_IMAGE=$(E2E_GITEA_IMAGE) E2E_JOB_IMAGE=$(E2E_JOB_IMAGE) GO=$(GO) SERVICE_IMAGE=$(SERVICE_IMAGE) ./tools/test-e2e.sh
+	@E2E_CONCURRENCY=$(E2E_CONCURRENCY) E2E_GITEA_IMAGE=$(E2E_GITEA_IMAGE) E2E_K3S_IMAGE=$(E2E_K3S_IMAGE) E2E_JOB_IMAGE=$(E2E_JOB_IMAGE) GO=$(GO) SERVICE_IMAGE=$(SERVICE_IMAGE) ./tools/test-e2e.sh

 .PHONY: install
 install: $(GOFILES) ## install the runner binary via `go install`
@@ -79,53 +79,24 @@ If the registry succeed, it will run immediately. Next time, you could run the r

 ### Run with docker

-```bash
-docker run -e GITEA_INSTANCE_URL=https://your_gitea.com -e GITEA_RUNNER_REGISTRATION_TOKEN=<your_token> -v /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --name my_runner gitea/runner:nightly
-```
-
-Mount a volume on `/data` if you want the registration file and optional config to survive container recreation (see [scripts/run.sh](scripts/run.sh)).
-
-> **`/data` does not hold the image cache.** It is the runner's working directory and contains only the `.runner` registration file and, optionally, your config file. Images pulled for jobs live in the *Docker daemon's* data root, which for the `dind` flavours is inside the container (`/var/lib/docker`, or `/home/rootless/.local/share/docker` for `dind-rootless`). To keep the image cache across restarts, give that path its own volume as well — otherwise every new container re-pulls the job images. With the `basic` flavour the images live on whichever daemon you point the runner at, so there is nothing extra to persist.
-
-### Image flavours
-
-The image is published in three flavours, all built from the single multi-stage [Dockerfile](Dockerfile) in this repository. They differ only in how a Docker daemon is made available to the jobs the runner executes; the `gitea-runner` binary inside them is identical.
-
-| Tag | Build target | Base image | Docker daemon | Process supervisor | Runs as |
-| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
-| `latest` (and `<version>`) | `basic` | `alpine` | none — uses an external daemon you provide | [`tini`](https://github.com/krallin/tini) | `root` |
-| `latest-dind` | `dind` | `docker:dind` | bundled, started inside the container | [`s6`](https://skarnet.org/software/s6/) | `root` (privileged) |
-| `latest-dind-rootless` | `dind-rootless` | `docker:dind-rootless` | bundled, started rootless inside the container | [`s6`](https://skarnet.org/software/s6/) | `rootless` (UID 1000) |
-
-#### `latest` — basic
-
-The default flavour ships only the runner on a minimal Alpine base. It contains **no Docker daemon of its own**: jobs that use `docker://` images need a daemon supplied from outside the container, typically by bind-mounting the host's socket:
-
-```bash
-docker run -e GITEA_INSTANCE_URL=https://your_gitea.com -e GITEA_RUNNER_REGISTRATION_TOKEN=<your_token> \
-  -v /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --name my_runner gitea/runner:latest
-```
-
-`tini` is the entrypoint (it reaps zombie processes), and it just runs [`scripts/run.sh`](scripts/run.sh), which registers the runner on first start and then execs `gitea-runner daemon`. This flavour does not need `--privileged`. The trade-off is that jobs share the host's daemon, so they can see other containers and images on that daemon.
-
-#### `latest-dind` — Docker-in-Docker
-
-This flavour is based on the official `docker:dind` image and bundles its own Docker daemon, so it needs no external socket — only the `--privileged` flag that Docker-in-Docker requires:
+The recommended Docker-in-Docker image runs its own Docker daemon for jobs. Jobs never get the host's Docker socket, which is equivalent to root access on the host.

 ```bash
 docker run --privileged -e GITEA_INSTANCE_URL=https://your_gitea.com -e GITEA_RUNNER_REGISTRATION_TOKEN=<your_token> \
-  --name my_runner gitea/runner:latest-dind
+  -v "$PWD/data:/data" -v runner-docker:/var/lib/docker --name my_runner gitea/runner:nightly-dind
 ```

-Two processes have to run side by side here (the Docker daemon and the runner), so the entrypoint is the [`s6`](https://skarnet.org/software/s6/) supervision tree under [`scripts/s6`](scripts/s6) instead of `tini`. `s6` starts `dockerd`, and the runner service waits for the daemon to come up (`s6-svwait`) before launching [`run.sh`](scripts/run.sh). Each container has a private daemon isolated from the host's, at the cost of running privileged.
+The volumes keep the runner's registration and the job image cache across container recreation.

-#### `latest-dind-rootless` — rootless Docker-in-Docker
+### Image flavours

-Same idea as `dind`, but built on `docker:dind-rootless` so the bundled daemon and the runner run as an unprivileged user (`rootless`, UID 1000) rather than `root`. `DOCKER_HOST` is preset to `unix:///run/user/1000/docker.sock` so the runner talks to the rootless daemon. This reduces the blast radius compared to the privileged `dind` flavour, but rootless Docker carries the usual rootless limitations (networking, cgroups, storage drivers, and some operations that need additional host configuration such as `/etc/subuid` / `/etc/subgid` mappings and unprivileged user-namespace support).
+| Tag | Docker daemon for jobs |
+| --- | --- |
+| `latest-dind` (recommended) | Bundled, needs `--privileged`. |
+| `latest-dind-rootless` | Bundled, runs as a non-root user (UID 1000) for stronger isolation. Needs `--privileged` and [rootless Docker](https://docs.docker.com/engine/security/rootless/) support on the host. Keeps its image cache in `/home/rootless/.local/share/docker`. |
+| `latest` | None. Mount the host's socket with `-v /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock`, or set `DOCKER_HOST`. |

-> **The UID is fixed at 1000.** It comes from the `rootless` user baked into the upstream `docker:dind-rootless` base image, and the bundled daemon always listens on `/run/user/1000/docker.sock` inside the container, so running this flavour as a different user (`--user 1001`) does not work. If you need the runner to talk to a *host* rootless daemon that runs under some other UID, use the `basic` flavour instead and bind-mount that daemon's socket (see [examples/vm/rootless-docker.md](examples/vm/rootless-docker.md)); pointing `DOCKER_HOST` at a host socket from inside `dind-rootless` will not work. Changing the UID otherwise means rebuilding the image from a base with a different `rootless` user.
-
-> **Note on Podman:** these images target the Docker daemon. The bundled `dind`/`dind-rootless` daemons are `dockerd`, not Podman, and the `basic` flavour expects a Docker-compatible socket. Running them under rootless Podman is not a supported configuration, though pointing the `basic` flavour at a Podman socket that emulates the Docker API may work for some workloads.
+Versioned and `nightly` tags carry the same suffixes, for example `nightly-dind`. The images target Docker, not Podman.

 ### Configuration

@@ -201,10 +172,10 @@ A label is written as:
 | Part | Meaning |
 | --- | --- |
 | `name` | The name a workflow refers to in `runs-on`, e.g. `ubuntu-latest`. |
-| `schema` | Either `docker` or `host`. Defaults to `host` when omitted. |
-| `args` | Only used by the `docker` schema: the image to run the job in. |
+| `schema` | `docker`, `kubernetes` or `host`. Defaults to `host` when omitted. |
+| `args` | Only used by the `docker` and `kubernetes` schemas: the image to run the job in. |

-Two schemas are supported:
+Three schemas are supported:

 - **`docker://<image>`** — the job runs inside a container created from `<image>`:

@@ -212,6 +183,12 @@ Two schemas are supported:
  ubuntu-latest:docker://docker.gitea.com/runner-images:ubuntu-latest
  ```

+- **`kubernetes://<image>`** — the job runs as a Kubernetes pod created from `<image>`, see **[docs/kubernetes.md](docs/kubernetes.md)**:
+
+  ```text
+  ubuntu-latest:kubernetes://docker.gitea.com/runner-images:ubuntu-latest
+  ```
+
 - **`host`** — the job's steps run directly on the machine the runner is on, using the tools installed there:

  ```text
@@ -226,9 +203,9 @@ ubuntu-latest:docker://docker.gitea.com/runner-images:ubuntu-latest,macos:host

 a workflow with `runs-on: ubuntu-latest` is executed in the `runner-images:ubuntu-latest` container, and one with `runs-on: macos` is executed directly on the host.

-Names may themselves contain a colon (for example `pool:e57e18d4-10d4-406f-93bf-60f127221bdd`); only `host` and `docker` are treated as schemas.
+Names may themselves contain a colon, for example `pool:e57e18d4-10d4-406f-93bf-60f127221bdd`. Only `host`, `docker` and `kubernetes` are treated as schemas.

-If a job's `runs-on` matches none of the runner's labels, or sets no `runs-on` at all, it still runs: in `runner.default_image` where docker is available, on the host where it is not. Images maintained for this purpose are listed at [gitea/runner-images](https://gitea.com/gitea/runner-images).
+If a job's `runs-on` matches none of the runner's labels, or sets no `runs-on` at all, it still runs in `runner.default_image`: as a container when the runner has `docker` labels, as a pod when it has `kubernetes` labels, else as a container where docker is available and on the host where it is not. Images maintained for this purpose are listed at [gitea/runner-images](https://gitea.com/gitea/runner-images).

 Labels are chosen at registration time (`--labels`, or the interactive prompt) and can be changed afterwards by editing `runner.labels` in the config file, or in the Gitea UI under the runner's settings.

@@ -380,6 +357,7 @@ While the runner is idle it cleans up after earlier jobs:
 - only purely numeric subdirectories under `container.workdir_parent` are treated as task workspaces and may be removed
 - cleanup assumes `container.workdir_parent` is not shared across multiple runners
 - on runners that use docker, per-job networks left behind by jobs the runner did not live to tear down are removed, identified by the `com.gitea.runner.uuid` label carrying this runner's uuid
+- on runners with `kubernetes` labels, job pods with that label older than `runner.workdir_cleanup_age` are removed the same way, together with their Secrets
 - cleanup runs every `runner.idle_cleanup_interval` (default: `10m`; set `0` to disable), and setting either knob to `0` disables all of the above

 #### Post-task script (`runner.post_task_script`)
@@ -404,7 +382,7 @@ See **[docs/job-hooks.md](docs/job-hooks.md)** for the execution order, environm

 #### OpenTelemetry (`OTEL_*`)

-Set `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_ENDPOINT` in the runner's environment to send a trace of every job to an OpenTelemetry collector. See **[docs/telemetry.md](docs/telemetry.md)**.
+Set `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_ENDPOINT` in the runner's environment to send a trace of every job, and the runner's metrics, to an OpenTelemetry collector. See **[docs/telemetry.md](docs/telemetry.md)**.

 #### Local job logs (`log.job.dir`)

@@ -9,11 +9,13 @@ import (
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
+	nethttp "net/http"
 	"os"
 	"path"
 	"regexp"
 	"strings"
 	"sync"
+	"time"

 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/common"
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/lock"
@@ -22,6 +24,8 @@ import (
 	"github.com/go-git/go-git/v5/config"
 	"github.com/go-git/go-git/v5/plumbing"
 	"github.com/go-git/go-git/v5/plumbing/storer"
+	"github.com/go-git/go-git/v5/plumbing/transport"
+	"github.com/go-git/go-git/v5/plumbing/transport/client"
 	"github.com/go-git/go-git/v5/plumbing/transport/http"
 	"github.com/mattn/go-isatty"
 	log "github.com/sirupsen/logrus"
@@ -38,6 +42,20 @@ var (
 	ErrShortRef = errors.New("short SHA references are not supported")
 )

+func init() {
+	httpClient := newHTTPClient(&nethttp.HTTP2Config{SendPingTimeout: 30 * time.Second})
+	client.InstallProtocol("http", httpClient)
+	client.InstallProtocol("https", httpClient)
+}
+
+// newHTTPClient pings idle HTTP/2 connections to drop stalled ones.
+func newHTTPClient(h2 *nethttp.HTTP2Config) transport.Transport {
+	defaultTransport, _ := nethttp.DefaultTransport.(*nethttp.Transport)
+	httpTransport := defaultTransport.Clone()
+	httpTransport.HTTP2 = h2
+	return http.NewClient(&nethttp.Client{Transport: httpTransport})
+}
+
 // AcquireCloneLock returns an unlock function after locking the per-directory mutex for dir.
 // Only concurrent operations targeting the same directory are serialized; clones into different directories run in parallel.
 // Callers reading files inside dir (e.g. tarring a checked-out action into a job container) must hold this lock too,
@@ -6,7 +6,9 @@ package git

 import (
 	"context"
+	"crypto/tls"
 	"fmt"
+	"io"
 	"net/http"
 	"net/http/httptest"
 	"os"
@@ -756,3 +758,25 @@ func TestNewGitCloneExecutorFetchHonoursContext(t *testing.T) {
 		t.Fatal("fetch ignored context cancellation")
 	}
 }
+
+func TestNewGitCloneExecutorFailsOnSilentHTTP2Connection(t *testing.T) {
+	server := httptest.NewUnstartedServer(nil)
+	server.EnableHTTP2 = true
+	server.Config.TLSNextProto = map[string]func(*http.Server, *tls.Conn, http.Handler){
+		"h2": func(_ *http.Server, conn *tls.Conn, _ http.Handler) { _, _ = io.Copy(io.Discard, conn) },
+	}
+	server.StartTLS()
+	t.Cleanup(server.Close)
+
+	previous := gogitclient.Protocols["https"]
+	gogitclient.InstallProtocol("https", newHTTPClient(&http.HTTP2Config{SendPingTimeout: 50 * time.Millisecond, PingTimeout: 50 * time.Millisecond}))
+	t.Cleanup(func() { gogitclient.InstallProtocol("https", previous) })
+
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(t.Context(), 10*time.Second)
+	defer cancel()
+	err := NewGitCloneExecutor(NewGitCloneExecutorInput{
+		URL: server.URL + "/action", Ref: "main", Dir: filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "action"), InsecureSkipTLS: true,
+	})(ctx)
+	require.Error(t, err)
+	require.NoError(t, ctx.Err())
+}
@@ -10,6 +10,11 @@ import (
 	"strings"
 )

+type interfaceIP struct {
+	net.IP
+	net.Interface
+}
+
 // GetOutboundIP returns an outbound IP address of this machine.
 // It tries to access the internet and returns the local IP address of the connection.
 // If the machine cannot access the internet, it returns a preferred IP address from network interfaces.
@@ -26,11 +31,7 @@ func GetOutboundIP() net.IP {

 	// So the machine cannot access the internet. Pick an IP address from network interfaces.
 	if ifs, err := net.Interfaces(); err == nil {
-		type IP struct {
-			net.IP
-			net.Interface
-		}
-		var ips []IP
+		var ips []interfaceIP
 		for _, i := range ifs {
 			if addrs, err := i.Addrs(); err == nil {
 				for _, addr := range addrs {
@@ -42,40 +43,45 @@ func GetOutboundIP() net.IP {
 						ip = v.IP
 					}
 					if ip.IsGlobalUnicast() {
-						ips = append(ips, IP{ip, i})
+						ips = append(ips, interfaceIP{ip, i})
 					}
 				}
 			}
 		}
-		if len(ips) > 1 {
-			sort.Slice(ips, func(i, j int) bool {
-				ifi := ips[i].Interface
-				ifj := ips[j].Interface
-
-				// ethernet is preferred
-				if vi, vj := strings.HasPrefix(ifi.Name, "e"), strings.HasPrefix(ifj.Name, "e"); vi != vj {
-					return vi
-				}
-
-				ipi := ips[i].IP
-				ipj := ips[j].IP
-
-				// IPv4 is preferred
-				if vi, vj := ipi.To4() != nil, ipj.To4() != nil; vi != vj {
-					return vi
-				}
-
-				// en0 is preferred to en1
-				if ifi.Name != ifj.Name {
-					return ifi.Name < ifj.Name
-				}
-
-				// fallback
-				return ipi.String() < ipj.String()
-			})
-			return ips[0].IP
-		}
+		return preferredIP(ips)
 	}

 	return nil
 }
+
+func preferredIP(ips []interfaceIP) net.IP {
+	if len(ips) == 0 {
+		return nil
+	}
+	sort.Slice(ips, func(i, j int) bool {
+		ifi := ips[i].Interface
+		ifj := ips[j].Interface
+
+		// ethernet is preferred
+		if vi, vj := strings.HasPrefix(ifi.Name, "e"), strings.HasPrefix(ifj.Name, "e"); vi != vj {
+			return vi
+		}
+
+		ipi := ips[i].IP
+		ipj := ips[j].IP
+
+		// IPv4 is preferred
+		if vi, vj := ipi.To4() != nil, ipj.To4() != nil; vi != vj {
+			return vi
+		}
+
+		// en0 is preferred to en1
+		if ifi.Name != ifj.Name {
+			return ifi.Name < ifj.Name
+		}
+
+		// fallback
+		return ipi.String() < ipj.String()
+	})
+	return ips[0].IP
+}
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+// Copyright 2026 The Gitea Authors. All rights reserved.
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+
+package common
+
+import (
+	"net"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
+)
+
+func TestPreferredIP(t *testing.T) {
+	assert.Nil(t, preferredIP(nil))
+	assert.Equal(t, net.ParseIP("2001:db8::1"), preferredIP([]interfaceIP{{IP: net.ParseIP("2001:db8::1")}}))
+	assert.Equal(t, net.ParseIP("2001:db8::1"), preferredIP([]interfaceIP{
+		{IP: net.ParseIP("192.0.2.1"), Name: "wlan0"},
+		{IP: net.ParseIP("2001:db8::1"), Name: "eth0"},
+	}))
+}
@@ -75,6 +75,9 @@ const (
 	HealthUnhealthy = string(container.Unhealthy)
 )

+// marks what a runner creates for its jobs, telling its leftovers from another runner's
+const runnerUUIDLabel = "com.gitea.runner.uuid"
+
 // ErrContainerNotFound reports a container the daemon no longer knows. Its text is a
 // fragment, missingContainerError composes it into the message every operation shares.
 var ErrContainerNotFound = errors.New("does not exist")
@@ -46,14 +46,13 @@ func RemoveImage(ctx context.Context, imageName string, force, pruneChildren boo
 	}
 	defer cli.Close()

-	inspectImage, err := cli.ImageInspect(ctx, imageName)
-	if cerrdefs.IsNotFound(err) {
+	if _, err := cli.ImageInspect(ctx, imageName); cerrdefs.IsNotFound(err) {
 		return false, nil
 	} else if err != nil {
 		return false, err
 	}

-	if _, err = cli.ImageRemove(ctx, inspectImage.ID, client.ImageRemoveOptions{
+	if _, err = cli.ImageRemove(ctx, imageName, client.ImageRemoveOptions{
 		Force:         force,
 		PruneChildren: pruneChildren,
 	}); err != nil {
@@ -24,10 +24,6 @@ import (
 const (
 	networkCreateAttempts   = 3
 	networkCreateRetryDelay = time.Second
-
-	// marks the networks a runner creates for its jobs, so it can tell its own leftovers from
-	// those of another runner sharing the daemon
-	runnerUUIDLabel = "com.gitea.runner.uuid"
 )

 // RemoveOrphanNetworks removes the networks this runner created for jobs whose teardown did
@@ -7,7 +7,6 @@
 package container

 import (
-	"archive/tar"
 	"bytes"
 	"context"
 	"errors"
@@ -25,16 +24,12 @@ import (
 	"time"

 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/common"
-	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/filecollector"

 	"dario.cat/mergo"
 	"github.com/bmatcuk/doublestar/v4"
 	cerrdefs "github.com/containerd/errdefs"
 	"github.com/docker/cli/cli/compose/loader"
 	"github.com/docker/cli/cli/connhelper"
-	"github.com/go-git/go-billy/v5/helper/polyfill"
-	"github.com/go-git/go-billy/v5/osfs"
-	"github.com/go-git/go-git/v5/plumbing/format/gitignore"
 	"github.com/joho/godotenv"
 	"github.com/moby/moby/api/pkg/stdcopy"
 	"github.com/moby/moby/api/types/container"
@@ -982,42 +977,7 @@ func (cr *containerReference) copyDir(dstPath, srcPath string, useGitIgnore, ski
 				logger.Error(err)
 			}
 		}(tarFile)
-		tw := tar.NewWriter(tarFile)
-
-		srcPrefix := filepath.Dir(srcPath)
-		if !strings.HasSuffix(srcPrefix, string(filepath.Separator)) {
-			srcPrefix += string(filepath.Separator)
-		}
-		logger.Debugf("Stripping prefix:%s src:%s", srcPrefix, srcPath)
-
-		var ignorer gitignore.Matcher
-		if useGitIgnore {
-			ps, err := gitignore.ReadPatterns(polyfill.New(osfs.New(srcPath)), nil)
-			if err != nil {
-				logger.Debugf("Error loading .gitignore: %v", err)
-			}
-
-			ignorer = gitignore.NewMatcher(ps)
-		}
-
-		fc := &filecollector.FileCollector{
-			Ignorer:    ignorer,
-			SrcPath:    srcPath,
-			SrcPrefix:  srcPrefix,
-			SkipGitDir: skipGitDir,
-			Handler: &filecollector.TarCollector{
-				TarWriter: tw,
-				UID:       cr.UID,
-				GID:       cr.GID,
-				DstDir:    dstPath[1:],
-			},
-		}
-
-		err = filepath.Walk(srcPath, fc.CollectFiles(ctx, []string{}))
-		if err != nil {
-			return err
-		}
-		if err := tw.Close(); err != nil {
+		if err := writeDirTar(ctx, tarFile, dstPath, srcPath, useGitIgnore, skipGitDir, cr.UID, cr.GID); err != nil {
 			return err
 		}

@@ -1042,30 +1002,12 @@ func (cr *containerReference) copyContent(dstPath string, files ...*FileEntry) c
 		if cr.id == "" {
 			return cr.missingContainerError("copy to %s", dstPath)
 		}
-		logger := common.Logger(ctx)
 		var buf bytes.Buffer
-		tw := tar.NewWriter(&buf)
-		for _, file := range files {
-			logger.Debugf("Writing entry to tarball %s len:%d", file.Name, len(file.Body))
-			hdr := &tar.Header{
-				Name: file.Name,
-				Mode: file.Mode,
-				Size: int64(len(file.Body)),
-				Uid:  cr.UID,
-				Gid:  cr.GID,
-			}
-			if err := tw.WriteHeader(hdr); err != nil {
-				return err
-			}
-			if _, err := tw.Write([]byte(file.Body)); err != nil {
-				return err
-			}
-		}
-		if err := tw.Close(); err != nil {
+		if err := writeFilesTar(ctx, &buf, cr.UID, cr.GID, files...); err != nil {
 			return err
 		}

-		logger.Debugf("Extracting content to '%s'", dstPath)
+		common.Logger(ctx).Debugf("Extracting content to '%s'", dstPath)
 		_, err := cr.cli.CopyToContainer(ctx, cr.id, client.CopyToContainerOptions{
 			DestinationPath: dstPath,
 			Content:         &buf,
@@ -0,0 +1,400 @@
+// Copyright 2026 The Gitea Authors. All rights reserved.
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+
+package container
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"cmp"
+	"context"
+	"crypto/tls"
+	"crypto/x509"
+	"encoding/base64"
+	"encoding/json"
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"io"
+	"net"
+	"net/http"
+	"net/url"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"strconv"
+	"strings"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/coder/websocket"
+	"go.yaml.in/yaml/v4"
+)
+
+const (
+	serviceAccountDir = "/var/run/secrets/kubernetes.io/serviceaccount"
+	execProtocol      = "v5.channel.k8s.io"
+)
+
+type kubeClient struct {
+	server, namespace, token string
+	tokenFile                string // re-read on every request, service account tokens rotate
+	inCluster                bool
+	http                     *http.Client
+}
+
+type apiError struct {
+	code    int
+	message string
+}
+
+func (e *apiError) Error() string { return e.message }
+
+func isNotFound(err error) bool {
+	var apiErr *apiError
+	return errors.As(err, &apiErr) && apiErr.code == http.StatusNotFound
+}
+
+func newKubeClient(kubeconfig, namespace string) (*kubeClient, error) {
+	client := &kubeClient{namespace: namespace}
+	transport := &http.Transport{Proxy: http.ProxyFromEnvironment, TLSClientConfig: &tls.Config{MinVersion: tls.VersionTLS12}}
+	if host := os.Getenv("KUBERNETES_SERVICE_HOST"); host != "" && kubeconfig == "" {
+		if err := client.loadInCluster(host, transport.TLSClientConfig); err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+	} else if err := client.loadKubeconfig(kubeconfig, transport); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	client.http = &http.Client{Transport: transport}
+	return client, nil
+}
+
+func (c *kubeClient) loadInCluster(host string, tlsConfig *tls.Config) error {
+	c.server = "https://" + net.JoinHostPort(host, os.Getenv("KUBERNETES_SERVICE_PORT"))
+	c.tokenFile = serviceAccountDir + "/token"
+	ca, err := os.ReadFile(serviceAccountDir + "/ca.crt")
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	tlsConfig.RootCAs = x509.NewCertPool()
+	tlsConfig.RootCAs.AppendCertsFromPEM(ca)
+	if c.namespace == "" {
+		namespace, err := os.ReadFile(serviceAccountDir + "/namespace")
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		c.namespace = strings.TrimSpace(string(namespace))
+	}
+	c.inCluster = true
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c *kubeClient) loadKubeconfig(path string, transport *http.Transport) error {
+	if paths := filepath.SplitList(os.Getenv("KUBECONFIG")); path == "" && len(paths) > 0 {
+		path = paths[0]
+	}
+	if path == "" {
+		home, err := os.UserHomeDir()
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		path = filepath.Join(home, ".kube", "config")
+	}
+	content, err := os.ReadFile(path)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("no in-cluster service account and no kubeconfig: %w", err)
+	}
+	var config struct {
+		CurrentContext string `yaml:"current-context"`
+		Contexts       []struct {
+			Name    string
+			Context struct{ Cluster, User, Namespace string }
+		}
+		Clusters []struct {
+			Name    string
+			Cluster struct {
+				Server                   string
+				TLSServerName            string `yaml:"tls-server-name"`
+				InsecureSkipTLSVerify    bool   `yaml:"insecure-skip-tls-verify"`
+				ProxyURL                 string `yaml:"proxy-url"`
+				CertificateAuthority     string `yaml:"certificate-authority"`
+				CertificateAuthorityData string `yaml:"certificate-authority-data"`
+			}
+		}
+		Users []struct {
+			Name string
+			User struct {
+				Token                 string
+				TokenFile             string `yaml:"tokenFile"`
+				ClientCertificate     string `yaml:"client-certificate"`
+				ClientCertificateData string `yaml:"client-certificate-data"`
+				ClientKey             string `yaml:"client-key"`
+				ClientKeyData         string `yaml:"client-key-data"`
+				Exec                  any
+				AuthProvider          any `yaml:"auth-provider"`
+			}
+		}
+	}
+	if err := yaml.Unmarshal(content, &config); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("parse kubeconfig %s: %w", path, err)
+	}
+	var current struct{ Cluster, User, Namespace string }
+	for _, entry := range config.Contexts {
+		if entry.Name == config.CurrentContext {
+			current = entry.Context
+		}
+	}
+	if current.Cluster == "" {
+		return fmt.Errorf("kubeconfig %s has no current context", path)
+	}
+	c.namespace = cmp.Or(c.namespace, current.Namespace, "default")
+
+	resolve := func(file string) string {
+		if file == "" || filepath.IsAbs(file) {
+			return file
+		}
+		return filepath.Join(filepath.Dir(path), file)
+	}
+	read := func(data, file string) ([]byte, error) {
+		if data != "" {
+			return base64.StdEncoding.DecodeString(data)
+		}
+		if file == "" {
+			return nil, nil
+		}
+		return os.ReadFile(resolve(file))
+	}
+
+	tlsConfig := transport.TLSClientConfig
+	for _, cluster := range config.Clusters {
+		if cluster.Name != current.Cluster {
+			continue
+		}
+		c.server = strings.TrimSuffix(cluster.Cluster.Server, "/")
+		tlsConfig.ServerName, tlsConfig.InsecureSkipVerify = cluster.Cluster.TLSServerName, cluster.Cluster.InsecureSkipTLSVerify
+		if cluster.Cluster.ProxyURL != "" {
+			proxy, err := url.Parse(cluster.Cluster.ProxyURL)
+			if err != nil {
+				return fmt.Errorf("kubeconfig %s: %w", path, err)
+			}
+			transport.Proxy = http.ProxyURL(proxy)
+		}
+		ca, err := read(cluster.Cluster.CertificateAuthorityData, cluster.Cluster.CertificateAuthority)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		if ca != nil {
+			tlsConfig.RootCAs = x509.NewCertPool()
+			tlsConfig.RootCAs.AppendCertsFromPEM(ca)
+		}
+	}
+	for _, user := range config.Users {
+		if user.Name != current.User {
+			continue
+		}
+		if user.User.Exec != nil || user.User.AuthProvider != nil {
+			return fmt.Errorf("kubeconfig %s: user %q authenticates through a credential plugin, which the runner does not support, use a token or client certificate", path, user.Name)
+		}
+		c.token, c.tokenFile = user.User.Token, resolve(user.User.TokenFile)
+		cert, err := read(user.User.ClientCertificateData, user.User.ClientCertificate)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		key, err := read(user.User.ClientKeyData, user.User.ClientKey)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		if cert != nil {
+			pair, err := tls.X509KeyPair(cert, key)
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			tlsConfig.Certificates = []tls.Certificate{pair}
+		}
+	}
+	if c.server == "" {
+		return fmt.Errorf("kubeconfig %s names no server for context %q", path, config.CurrentContext)
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c *kubeClient) authorize(header http.Header) error {
+	token := c.token
+	if c.tokenFile != "" {
+		content, err := os.ReadFile(c.tokenFile)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		token = strings.TrimSpace(string(content))
+	}
+	if token != "" {
+		header.Set("Authorization", "Bearer "+token)
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c *kubeClient) path(resource string) string {
+	return "/api/v1/namespaces/" + c.namespace + "/" + resource
+}
+
+func (c *kubeClient) do(ctx context.Context, method, path string, in, out any) error {
+	var body io.Reader
+	if in != nil {
+		content, err := json.Marshal(in)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		body = bytes.NewReader(content)
+	}
+	req, err := http.NewRequestWithContext(ctx, method, c.server+path, body)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	if err := c.authorize(req.Header); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	req.Header.Set("Content-Type", "application/json")
+	resp, err := c.http.Do(req)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	defer resp.Body.Close()
+	if resp.StatusCode >= http.StatusMultipleChoices {
+		return statusError(resp)
+	}
+	if out == nil {
+		out = io.Discard // draining lets the connection be reused
+	}
+	if writer, ok := out.(io.Writer); ok {
+		_, err = io.Copy(writer, resp.Body)
+		return err
+	}
+	return json.NewDecoder(resp.Body).Decode(out)
+}
+
+func (c *kubeClient) delete(ctx context.Context, resource, name string) error {
+	if name == "" {
+		return nil
+	}
+	if err := c.do(ctx, http.MethodDelete, c.path(resource+"/"+name), nil, nil); err != nil && !isNotFound(err) {
+		return fmt.Errorf("delete %s %s: %w", resource, name, err)
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func statusError(resp *http.Response) error {
+	content, _ := io.ReadAll(resp.Body)
+	var status struct{ Message string }
+	if json.Unmarshal(content, &status) != nil || status.Message == "" {
+		status.Message = strings.TrimSpace(string(content))
+	}
+	return &apiError{code: resp.StatusCode, message: status.Message}
+}
+
+func (c *kubeClient) exec(ctx context.Context, pod, containerName string, command []string, stdin io.Reader, stdout, stderr io.Writer) error {
+	query := url.Values{"container": {containerName}, "command": command, "stdout": {"true"}, "stderr": {"true"}}
+	if stdin != nil {
+		query.Set("stdin", "true")
+	}
+	header := http.Header{}
+	if err := c.authorize(header); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithCancelCause(ctx)
+	defer cancel(nil)
+	conn, resp, err := websocket.Dial(ctx, c.server+c.path("pods/"+pod+"/exec?")+query.Encode(), &websocket.DialOptions{
+		HTTPClient:   c.http,
+		HTTPHeader:   header,
+		Subprotocols: []string{execProtocol},
+	})
+	if err != nil {
+		if resp != nil && resp.StatusCode >= http.StatusMultipleChoices {
+			defer resp.Body.Close()
+			err = statusError(resp)
+		}
+		return fmt.Errorf("exec in pod %s: %w", pod, err)
+	}
+	defer func() { _ = conn.CloseNow() }()
+	if conn.Subprotocol() != execProtocol {
+		return fmt.Errorf("the Kubernetes API server does not speak %s, which needs Kubernetes 1.30 or later", execProtocol)
+	}
+	conn.SetReadLimit(-1)
+
+	if stdin != nil {
+		go func() {
+			if err := sendStdin(ctx, conn, stdin); err != nil {
+				cancel(err)
+			}
+		}()
+	}
+	go func() {
+		ticker := time.NewTicker(5 * time.Second)
+		defer ticker.Stop()
+		for {
+			select {
+			case <-ctx.Done():
+				return
+			case <-ticker.C:
+				if conn.Ping(ctx) != nil {
+					return
+				}
+			}
+		}
+	}()
+
+	for {
+		_, frame, err := conn.Read(ctx)
+		if err != nil {
+			return cmp.Or(context.Cause(ctx), fmt.Errorf("exec in pod %s ended without an exit status: %w", pod, err))
+		}
+		if len(frame) < 2 {
+			continue
+		}
+		switch frame[0] {
+		case 1:
+			_, err = stdout.Write(frame[1:])
+		case 2:
+			_, err = stderr.Write(frame[1:])
+		case 3:
+			return cmp.Or(context.Cause(ctx), execStatus(frame[1:]))
+		}
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func sendStdin(ctx context.Context, conn *websocket.Conn, stdin io.Reader) error {
+	frame := make([]byte, 1+32*1024) // frame[0] is the stdin channel, 0
+	for {
+		n, err := stdin.Read(frame[1:])
+		if n > 0 {
+			if err := conn.Write(ctx, websocket.MessageBinary, frame[:1+n]); err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+		}
+		if errors.Is(err, io.EOF) {
+			return conn.Write(ctx, websocket.MessageBinary, []byte{255, 0}) // v5 close signal for stdin
+		}
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func execStatus(content []byte) error {
+	var status struct {
+		Status, Message string
+		Details         struct {
+			Causes []struct{ Reason, Message string }
+		}
+	}
+	if err := json.Unmarshal(content, &status); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("decode exec status: %w", err)
+	}
+	if status.Status == "Success" {
+		return nil
+	}
+	for _, cause := range status.Details.Causes {
+		if code, err := strconv.Atoi(cause.Message); cause.Reason == "ExitCode" && err == nil {
+			return ExitCodeError(code)
+		}
+	}
+	return fmt.Errorf("exec failed: %s", status.Message)
+}
@@ -0,0 +1,290 @@
+// Copyright 2026 The Gitea Authors. All rights reserved.
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+
+package container
+
+import (
+	"archive/tar"
+	"bytes"
+	"encoding/json"
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"io"
+	"net/http"
+	"net/http/httptest"
+	"os"
+	"os/exec"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"runtime"
+	"strings"
+	"sync"
+	"testing"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/coder/websocket"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+)
+
+type podManifest struct {
+	Metadata struct{ Labels map[string]string }
+	Spec     struct {
+		AutomountServiceAccountToken bool
+		EnableServiceLinks           bool
+		HostAliases                  []struct{ Hostnames []string }
+		Volumes                      []map[string]any
+		Containers                   []struct {
+			Name, ImagePullPolicy string
+			Resources             map[string]any
+			StartupProbe          *struct{ PeriodSeconds, TimeoutSeconds, FailureThreshold int }
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+type fakeCluster struct {
+	mu       sync.Mutex
+	requests map[string][]string
+}
+
+func (f *fakeCluster) record(request, content string) {
+	f.mu.Lock()
+	defer f.mu.Unlock()
+	f.requests[request] = append(f.requests[request], content)
+}
+
+func fakeKubernetes(t *testing.T, podStatus string) (string, *fakeCluster) {
+	cluster := &fakeCluster{requests: map[string][]string{}}
+	server := httptest.NewServer(http.HandlerFunc(func(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
+		if r.Header.Get("Authorization") != "Bearer test-token" {
+			w.WriteHeader(http.StatusUnauthorized)
+			return
+		}
+		body, err := io.ReadAll(r.Body)
+		assert.NoError(t, err)
+		cluster.record(r.Method+" "+r.URL.Path, string(body))
+		pods, secrets := "/api/v1/namespaces/ci/pods", "/api/v1/namespaces/ci/secrets"
+		switch {
+		case r.Method == http.MethodGet && r.URL.Path == pods:
+			cluster.record("list", r.URL.Query().Get("labelSelector"))
+			_, _ = io.WriteString(w, `{"items":[{"metadata":{"name":"old","creationTimestamp":"2020-01-01T00:00:00Z"}},{"metadata":{"name":"new","creationTimestamp":"2999-01-01T00:00:00Z"}}]}`)
+		case strings.HasSuffix(r.URL.Path, "/exec"):
+			cluster.record("exec", r.URL.RawQuery)
+			serveLocalExec(t, w, r)
+		case strings.HasSuffix(r.URL.Path, "/log"):
+			_, _ = io.WriteString(w, "log of "+r.URL.Query().Get("container"))
+		case r.Method == http.MethodGet && strings.HasPrefix(r.URL.Path, pods+"/"):
+			_, _ = io.WriteString(w, podStatus)
+		case r.Method == http.MethodPost && (r.URL.Path == pods || r.URL.Path == secrets), r.Method == http.MethodDelete:
+		default:
+			w.WriteHeader(http.StatusNotFound)
+		}
+	}))
+	t.Cleanup(server.Close)
+	kubeconfig := filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "kubeconfig")
+	require.NoError(t, os.WriteFile(filepath.Join(filepath.Dir(kubeconfig), "token"), []byte("test-token\n"), 0o600))
+	require.NoError(t, os.WriteFile(kubeconfig, fmt.Appendf(nil, `
+current-context: test
+contexts: [{name: test, context: {cluster: test, user: test, namespace: ci}}]
+clusters: [{name: test, cluster: {server: "http://kubernetes.invalid", proxy-url: %q}}]
+users: [{name: test, user: {tokenFile: token}}]
+`, server.URL), 0o600))
+	return kubeconfig, cluster
+}
+
+func serveLocalExec(t *testing.T, w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
+	conn, err := websocket.Accept(w, r, &websocket.AcceptOptions{Subprotocols: []string{execProtocol}})
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Error(err)
+		return
+	}
+	defer func() { _ = conn.CloseNow() }()
+	conn.SetReadLimit(-1)
+	command := r.URL.Query()["command"]
+	var stdin bytes.Buffer
+	for r.URL.Query().Get("stdin") == "true" {
+		_, frame, err := conn.Read(r.Context())
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Error(err)
+			return
+		}
+		if frame[0] == 255 {
+			break
+		}
+		stdin.Write(frame[1:])
+	}
+	cmd := exec.Command(command[0], command[1:]...)
+	cmd.Env = append(os.Environ(), "COPYFILE_DISABLE=1")
+	var stdout, stderr bytes.Buffer
+	cmd.Stdin, cmd.Stdout, cmd.Stderr = &stdin, &stdout, &stderr
+	status := `{"status":"Success"}`
+	var exitErr *exec.ExitError
+	if err := cmd.Run(); errors.As(err, &exitErr) {
+		status = fmt.Sprintf(`{"status":"Failure","reason":"NonZeroExitCode","details":{"causes":[{"reason":"ExitCode","message":"%d"}]}}`, exitErr.ExitCode())
+	} else {
+		assert.NoError(t, err)
+	}
+	for _, frame := range [][]byte{append([]byte{1}, stdout.Bytes()...), append([]byte{2}, stderr.Bytes()...), append([]byte{3}, status...)} {
+		_ = conn.Write(r.Context(), websocket.MessageBinary, frame)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestKubernetesPodRunsJobThroughAPI(t *testing.T) {
+	if runtime.GOOS == "windows" {
+		t.Skip("uses POSIX shell")
+	}
+	ctx := t.Context()
+	kubeconfig, cluster := fakeKubernetes(t, `{"spec":{"containers":[{},{}]},"status":{"phase":"Running","containerStatuses":[
+		{"name":"job","ready":true,"state":{"running":{}}},
+		{"name":"my-db","ready":true,"state":{"running":{}}}]}}`)
+	workdir, err := filepath.EvalSymlinks(t.TempDir())
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	options := KubernetesOptions{Kubeconfig: kubeconfig, RunnerUUID: "runner-uuid", PodTemplates: []map[string]any{
+		{"spec": map[string]any{
+			"automountServiceAccountToken": true,
+			"containers": []any{
+				map[string]any{"name": "job", "resources": map[string]any{"limits": map[string]any{"cpu": "2"}}},
+				map[string]any{
+					"name": "$services", "imagePullPolicy": "Always", "resources": map[string]any{"limits": map[string]any{"memory": "256Mi"}},
+					"env": []any{map[string]any{"name": "POSTGRES_PASSWORD", "value": "template"}},
+				},
+			},
+		}},
+		{"spec": map[string]any{
+			"volumes":    []any{map[string]any{"name": "workspace", "emptyDir": map[string]any{"sizeLimit": "1Gi"}}},
+			"containers": []any{map[string]any{"name": "job", "resources": map[string]any{"limits": map[string]any{"memory": "1Gi"}}}},
+		}},
+	}}
+	pod, err := NewKubernetesPod(options)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	var jobLog, serviceLog bytes.Buffer
+	job := pod.JobContainer(&NewContainerInput{Name: "Job-Name", Image: "node", WorkingDir: workdir, Stdout: &jobLog, Stderr: &jobLog})
+	service := pod.ServiceContainer("My_DB", &NewContainerInput{
+		Image:           "postgres",
+		Cmd:             []string{"postgres", "-D", "$(PGDATA)"},
+		Env:             []string{"POSTGRES_PASSWORD=service-secret"},
+		WorkflowOptions: "--health-cmd pg_isready --health-interval 2s --health-start-period 4s",
+		Stdout:          &serviceLog,
+	})
+
+	require.NoError(t, job.Create(nil, nil)(ctx))
+	var manifest podManifest
+	require.NoError(t, json.Unmarshal([]byte(cluster.requests["POST /api/v1/namespaces/ci/pods"][0]), &manifest))
+	assert.Equal(t, "gitea-runner", manifest.Metadata.Labels["app.kubernetes.io/managed-by"])
+	assert.Equal(t, "runner-uuid", manifest.Metadata.Labels[runnerUUIDLabel])
+	assert.True(t, manifest.Spec.AutomountServiceAccountToken)
+	assert.False(t, manifest.Spec.EnableServiceLinks)
+	assert.Equal(t, []string{"my-db"}, manifest.Spec.HostAliases[0].Hostnames)
+	require.Len(t, manifest.Spec.Containers, 2)
+	assert.Equal(t, map[string]any{"limits": map[string]any{"cpu": "2", "memory": "1Gi"}}, manifest.Spec.Containers[0].Resources)
+	assert.Empty(t, manifest.Spec.Containers[0].ImagePullPolicy)
+	assert.Equal(t, "my-db", manifest.Spec.Containers[1].Name)
+	assert.Equal(t, "Always", manifest.Spec.Containers[1].ImagePullPolicy)
+	assert.Equal(t, map[string]any{"limits": map[string]any{"memory": "256Mi"}}, manifest.Spec.Containers[1].Resources)
+	assert.Equal(t, []map[string]any{
+		{"name": "workspace", "emptyDir": map[string]any{"sizeLimit": "1Gi"}},
+		{"name": "act", "emptyDir": map[string]any{}},
+	}, manifest.Spec.Volumes)
+	assert.Equal(t, struct{ PeriodSeconds, TimeoutSeconds, FailureThreshold int }{2, 30, 5}, *manifest.Spec.Containers[1].StartupProbe)
+	assert.NotContains(t, cluster.requests["POST /api/v1/namespaces/ci/pods"][0], "service-secret")
+	assert.Contains(t, cluster.requests["POST /api/v1/namespaces/ci/secrets"][0], "service-secret")
+	assert.Contains(t, cluster.requests["POST /api/v1/namespaces/ci/secrets"][0], `"com.gitea.runner.uuid":"runner-uuid"`)
+	assert.Contains(t, cluster.requests["POST /api/v1/namespaces/ci/pods"][0], `{"name":"POSTGRES_PASSWORD","valueFrom":{"secretKeyRef":{"key":"my-db.0","name":"`+pod.secretName+`"}}}`)
+	assert.Equal(t, []any{"new"}, mergeManifest([]any{"old"}, []any{"new"}, ""))
+	mount := func(path string) any { return map[string]any{"name": "config", "mountPath": path} }
+	assert.Equal(t, []any{mount("/a"), mount("/b")}, mergeManifest([]any{mount("/a")}, []any{mount("/b")}, "volumeMounts"))
+	tmpfs := map[string]any{"name": "workspace", "emptyDir": map[string]any{"medium": "Memory"}}
+	ephemeral := map[string]any{"name": "workspace", "ephemeral": map[string]any{}}
+	assert.Equal(t, []any{ephemeral}, mergeManifest([]any{tmpfs}, []any{ephemeral}, "volumes"))
+	assert.Contains(t, cluster.requests["POST /api/v1/namespaces/ci/pods"][0], `"args":["postgres","-D","$$(PGDATA)"]`)
+
+	require.NoError(t, os.WriteFile(filepath.Join(workdir, "env"), []byte("#!/bin/sh\necho \"$@\" > \"$0-args\"\nexec /usr/bin/env \"$@\"\n"), 0o755))
+	t.Setenv("PATH", workdir+":"+os.Getenv("PATH"))
+	require.NoError(t, job.Start(false)(ctx))
+
+	stepEnv := map[string]string{"INPUT_WHO-TO-GREET": "it's\nme", "SECRET": "hunter2", "UID": "5"}
+	require.NoError(t, job.Exec([]string{"printenv", "SECRET"}, stepEnv, "", "")(ctx))
+	envArgs, err := os.ReadFile(filepath.Join(workdir, "env-args"))
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.NotContains(t, string(envArgs), "hunter2")
+	require.NoError(t, job.Exec([]string{"printenv", "INPUT_WHO-TO-GREET"}, stepEnv, "", "")(ctx))
+	require.NoError(t, job.Exec([]string{"printenv", "UID"}, stepEnv, "", "")(ctx))
+	require.NoError(t, job.Exec([]string{"pwd", "-P"}, nil, "", workdir)(ctx))
+	assert.Equal(t, "hunter2\nit's\nme\n5\n"+workdir+"\n", jobLog.String())
+	assert.Equal(t, ExitCodeError(3), job.Exec([]string{"sh", "-c", "echo failing >&2; exit 3"}, nil, "", "")(ctx))
+	assert.Contains(t, jobLog.String(), "failing\n")
+	for _, query := range cluster.requests["exec"] {
+		assert.NotContains(t, query, "hunter2")
+	}
+
+	require.NoError(t, job.Copy(workdir+"/act/", &FileEntry{Name: "workflow/event.json", Mode: 0o644, Body: `{"ref":"main"}`})(ctx))
+	archive, err := job.GetContainerArchive(ctx, workdir+"/act/workflow/event.json")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	reader := tar.NewReader(archive)
+	header, err := reader.Next()
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	content, err := io.ReadAll(reader)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Equal(t, "event.json", header.Name)
+	assert.JSONEq(t, `{"ref":"main"}`, string(content))
+	require.NoError(t, archive.Close())
+	_, err = job.GetContainerArchive(ctx, workdir+"/missing")
+	require.Error(t, err)
+
+	pathEnv := map[string]string{}
+	require.NoError(t, job.UpdateFromImageEnv(&pathEnv)(ctx))
+	assert.Equal(t, os.Getenv("PATH"), pathEnv["PATH"])
+
+	info, err := service.Inspect(ctx)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Equal(t, HealthHealthy, info.Health)
+	require.NoError(t, service.DumpLogs(ctx))
+	assert.Equal(t, "log of my-db", serviceLog.String())
+
+	require.NoError(t, job.Remove()(ctx))
+	assert.Len(t, cluster.requests["DELETE /api/v1/namespaces/ci/pods/"+pod.name], 1)
+	assert.Len(t, cluster.requests["DELETE /api/v1/namespaces/ci/secrets/"+pod.secretName], 1)
+
+	require.NoError(t, RemoveOrphanKubernetesResources(ctx, options, time.Now()))
+	assert.Equal(t, []string{runnerUUIDLabel + "=runner-uuid"}, cluster.requests["list"])
+	assert.Len(t, cluster.requests["DELETE /api/v1/namespaces/ci/pods/old"], 1)
+	assert.Len(t, cluster.requests["DELETE /api/v1/namespaces/ci/secrets/old"], 1)
+	assert.Empty(t, cluster.requests["DELETE /api/v1/namespaces/ci/pods/new"])
+	assert.Empty(t, cluster.requests["DELETE /api/v1/namespaces/ci/secrets/new"])
+}
+
+func TestKubernetesPodFailsBeforeSteps(t *testing.T) {
+	kubeconfig, _ := fakeKubernetes(t, `{"spec":{"containers":[{}]},"status":{"containerStatuses":[
+		{"name":"job","state":{"waiting":{"reason":"ErrImagePull","message":"no such image"}}}]}}`)
+	template := map[string]any{"spec": map[string]any{"containers": []any{map[string]any{"name": "sidecar"}}}}
+	for _, test := range []struct {
+		services     []string
+		options, err string
+	}{
+		{[]string{"db"}, "--hostname db", "only --health-* options are supported"},
+		{[]string{"sidecar"}, "", "named like another container"},
+		{[]string{"my_db", "My-DB"}, "", `service My-DB maps to container "my-db"`},
+	} {
+		pod, err := NewKubernetesPod(KubernetesOptions{Kubeconfig: kubeconfig, Namespace: "ci", PodTemplates: []map[string]any{template}})
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		job := pod.JobContainer(&NewContainerInput{Image: "node"})
+		for _, service := range test.services {
+			pod.ServiceContainer(service, &NewContainerInput{Image: "postgres", WorkflowOptions: test.options})
+		}
+		require.ErrorContains(t, job.Create(nil, nil)(t.Context()), test.err)
+	}
+	pod, err := NewKubernetesPod(KubernetesOptions{Kubeconfig: kubeconfig, Namespace: "ci"})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	job := pod.JobContainer(&NewContainerInput{Image: "missing"})
+	require.NoError(t, job.Create(nil, nil)(t.Context()))
+	require.ErrorContains(t, job.Start(false)(t.Context()), "ErrImagePull: no such image")
+
+	plugin := filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "kubeconfig")
+	require.NoError(t, os.WriteFile(plugin, []byte(`
+current-context: eks
+contexts: [{name: eks, context: {cluster: eks, user: eks}}]
+clusters: [{name: eks, cluster: {server: "https://eks.example"}}]
+users: [{name: eks, user: {exec: {command: aws}}}]
+`), 0o600))
+	_, err = NewKubernetesPod(KubernetesOptions{Kubeconfig: plugin})
+	require.ErrorContains(t, err, "credential plugin")
+}
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+// Copyright 2026 The Gitea Authors. All rights reserved.
+// Copyright 2020 The nektos/act Authors. All rights reserved.
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+
+package container
+
+import (
+	"archive/tar"
+	"context"
+	"io"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"strings"
+
+	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/common"
+	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/filecollector"
+
+	"github.com/go-git/go-billy/v5/helper/polyfill"
+	"github.com/go-git/go-billy/v5/osfs"
+	"github.com/go-git/go-git/v5/plumbing/format/gitignore"
+)
+
+func writeFilesTar(ctx context.Context, w io.Writer, uid, gid int, files ...*FileEntry) error {
+	tw := tar.NewWriter(w)
+	for _, file := range files {
+		common.Logger(ctx).Debugf("Writing entry to tarball %s len:%d", file.Name, len(file.Body))
+		if err := tw.WriteHeader(&tar.Header{
+			Name: file.Name,
+			Mode: file.Mode,
+			Size: int64(len(file.Body)),
+			Uid:  uid,
+			Gid:  gid,
+		}); err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		if _, err := tw.Write([]byte(file.Body)); err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+	}
+	return tw.Close()
+}
+
+// writeDirTar prefixes entries with dstPath for extraction at root.
+func writeDirTar(ctx context.Context, w io.Writer, dstPath, srcPath string, useGitIgnore, skipGitDir bool, uid, gid int) error {
+	logger := common.Logger(ctx)
+	tw := tar.NewWriter(w)
+	srcPrefix := strings.TrimSuffix(filepath.Dir(srcPath), string(filepath.Separator)) + string(filepath.Separator)
+	logger.Debugf("Stripping prefix:%s src:%s", srcPrefix, srcPath)
+
+	var ignorer gitignore.Matcher
+	if useGitIgnore {
+		ps, err := gitignore.ReadPatterns(polyfill.New(osfs.New(srcPath)), nil)
+		if err != nil {
+			logger.Debugf("Error loading .gitignore: %v", err)
+		}
+
+		ignorer = gitignore.NewMatcher(ps)
+	}
+
+	if err := filepath.Walk(srcPath, (&filecollector.FileCollector{
+		Ignorer:    ignorer,
+		SrcPath:    srcPath,
+		SrcPrefix:  srcPrefix,
+		SkipGitDir: skipGitDir,
+		Handler:    &filecollector.TarCollector{TarWriter: tw, UID: uid, GID: gid, DstDir: dstPath[1:]},
+	}).CollectFiles(ctx, []string{})); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	return tw.Close()
+}
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ package runner

 import (
 	"context"
+	"crypto/rand"
 	"crypto/sha256"
 	"embed"
 	"encoding/hex"
@@ -287,11 +288,30 @@ func dockerActionImageTag(repository, actionName string, localAction bool) strin
 	return strings.ToLower(image)
 }

+// One image per step and job: its stages share a build, and concurrent jobs never run each other's.
+func (rc *RunContext) dockerActionImage(ctx context.Context, step actionStep, actionName string, localAction bool) string {
+	job := rc.topLevelRunContext()
+	if job.dockerActionImages == nil {
+		job.dockerActionImages = map[*model.Step]string{}
+	}
+	image, ok := job.dockerActionImages[step.getStepModel()]
+	if !ok {
+		image = dockerActionImageTag(step.getGithubContext(ctx).Repository, actionName, localAction) + "-" + strings.ToLower(rand.Text())
+		if !common.Dryrun(ctx) { // a dry run builds nothing to remove
+			job.dockerActionImages[step.getStepModel()] = image
+		}
+	}
+	return image
+}
+
 // TODO: break out parts of function to reduce complexicity
 func execAsDocker(ctx context.Context, step actionStep, actionName, actionDir, basedir string, localAction bool, stage stepStage) error {
 	logger := common.Logger(ctx)
 	rc := step.getRunContext()
 	action := step.getActionModel()
+	if rc.kubernetes {
+		return errKubernetesDocker
+	}

 	var prepImage common.Executor
 	var image string
@@ -301,7 +321,7 @@ func execAsDocker(ctx context.Context, step actionStep, actionName, actionDir, b
 		// Apply forcePull only for prebuild docker images
 		forcePull = rc.Config.ForcePull
 	} else {
-		image = dockerActionImageTag(step.getGithubContext(ctx).Repository, actionName, localAction)
+		image = rc.dockerActionImage(ctx, step, actionName, localAction)
 		contextDir, fileName := filepath.Split(filepath.Join(basedir, action.Runs.Image))

 		anyArchExists, err := ContainerImageExistsLocally(ctx, image, "any")
@@ -442,6 +462,9 @@ func newStepContainer(ctx context.Context, step step, image string, cmd, entrypo
 	logWriter := rc.commandLogWriter(ctx)
 	envList := make([]string, 0)
 	for k, v := range *step.getEnv() {
+		if rc.IsHostEnv() && strings.EqualFold(k, rc.JobContainer.GetPathVariableName()) && v == rc.JobContainer.DefaultPathVariable() { // the runner's own PATH stays out, as on GitHub
+			continue
+		}
 		envList = append(envList, fmt.Sprintf("%s=%s", k, v))
 	}

@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ func evaluateCompositeInputAndEnv(ctx context.Context, parent *RunContext, step
 		}
 	}

-	ee := parent.NewActionInputsExpressionEvaluator(ctx, step)
+	ee := parent.NewStepExpressionEvaluator(ctx, step)

 	for inputID, input := range step.getActionModel().Inputs {
 		envKey := regexp.MustCompile("[^A-Z0-9-]").ReplaceAllString(strings.ToUpper(inputID), "_")
@@ -104,6 +104,7 @@ func newCompositeRunContext(ctx context.Context, parent *RunContext, step action
 		Parent:        parent,
 		EventJSON:     parent.EventJSON,
 		platformImage: parent.platformImage,
+		kubernetes:    parent.kubernetes,
 		jobIndex:      parent.jobIndex,
 		jobTotal:      parent.jobTotal,
 	}
@@ -513,6 +513,17 @@ func TestDockerActionImageTag(t *testing.T) {
 		dockerActionImageTag("owner/repo", "./", true),
 		dockerActionImageTag("owner/repo", "./sub", true),
 	)
+
+	workflow := &model.Workflow{Jobs: map[string]*model.Job{"job1": {}}}
+	job := newTestRC(workflow, nil)
+	step := &stepActionRemote{Step: &model.Step{}, RunContext: job}
+	image := job.dockerActionImage(t.Context(), step, "abc123", false)
+	assert.True(t, strings.HasPrefix(image, "act-abc123-dockeraction:latest-"))
+	assert.Equal(t, image, (&RunContext{Parent: job}).dockerActionImage(t.Context(), step, "abc123", false))
+	assert.NotEqual(t, image, job.dockerActionImage(t.Context(), &stepActionRemote{Step: &model.Step{}, RunContext: job}, "abc123", false))
+	assert.NotEqual(t, image, newTestRC(workflow, nil).dockerActionImage(t.Context(), step, "abc123", false))
+	job.dockerActionImage(common.WithDryrun(t.Context(), true), &stepActionRemote{Step: &model.Step{}, RunContext: job}, "abc123", false)
+	assert.Len(t, job.dockerActionImages, 2)
 }

 func TestExecAsDockerStageEntrypoint(t *testing.T) {
@@ -246,18 +246,19 @@ func inputsFromEnv(env map[string]string) map[string]any {
 }

 func getEvaluatorInputs(rc *RunContext, stepInputs map[string]any, ghc *model.GithubContext) map[string]any {
+	if stepInputs != nil { // an action's own inputs, which workflow inputs must not shadow
+		return maps.Clone(stepInputs)
+	}
 	inputs := map[string]any{}

 	// only a called workflow's job itself takes the inputs Gitea resolved,
 	// composite actions copy its Config but have their own `inputs`
 	if rc.Config.WorkflowCallInputs != nil && rc.Parent == nil {
 		maps.Copy(inputs, rc.Config.WorkflowCallInputs)
-		maps.Copy(inputs, stepInputs)
 		return inputs
 	}

 	maps.Copy(inputs, rc.workflowCallInputs)
-	maps.Copy(inputs, stepInputs)

 	switch ghc.EventName {
 	case "workflow_dispatch":
@@ -414,6 +414,31 @@ on:
 	assert.Equal(t, map[string]any{"arg": "x"}, getEvaluatorInputs(composite, map[string]any{"arg": "x"}, ghc))
 }

+func TestActionInputsShadowDispatchInputs(t *testing.T) {
+	wf, err := model.ReadWorkflow(strings.NewReader(`
+on:
+  workflow_dispatch:
+    inputs:
+      message: {type: string}
+jobs:
+  job1: {}
+`))
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	rc := newTestRC(wf, nil)
+	rc.Config.EventName = "workflow_dispatch"
+	rc.EventJSON = `{"inputs":{"message":"workflow"}}`
+	step := &stepActionRemote{RunContext: rc, env: map[string]string{"INPUT_MESSAGE": "step"}}
+	assert.Equal(t, "step", rc.NewActionInputsExpressionEvaluator(t.Context(), step).InterpolateName(t.Context(), "${{ inputs.message }}"))
+	assert.Equal(t, "workflow", rc.NewStepExpressionEvaluator(t.Context(), step).InterpolateName(t.Context(), "${{ inputs.message }}"))
+	enabled, err := isStepEnabled(t.Context(), "inputs.message == 'workflow'", step, stepStageMain)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.True(t, enabled)
+	step.Step, step.action = &model.Step{}, &model.Action{Inputs: map[string]model.Input{"fallback": {Default: "${{ inputs.message }}"}}}
+	env, err := evaluateCompositeInputAndEnv(t.Context(), rc, step)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Equal(t, "workflow", env["INPUT_FALLBACK"])
+}
+
 func TestResolveWorkflowCallToleratesMismatchesAndPassesInheritedSecretsVerbatim(t *testing.T) {
 	callerWorkflow, err := model.ReadWorkflow(strings.NewReader(`
 jobs:
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ package runner

 import (
 	"context"
+	"os"
 	"os/exec"
 	"runtime"
 	"testing"
@@ -40,6 +41,16 @@ func requireDocker(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }

+func requireDockerSharingFiles(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Helper()
+	requireDocker(t)
+	for _, marker := range []string{"/.dockerenv", "/run/.containerenv"} {
+		if _, err := os.Stat(marker); err == nil {
+			t.Skip("skipping: inside a container, the docker daemon cannot bind-mount this process's files")
+		}
+	}
+}
+
 // requireHostTools skips the test unless every named executable is on PATH. Used by the
 // self-hosted (host environment) suite, which runs steps directly on the host.
 func requireHostTools(t *testing.T, tools ...string) {
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ import (
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
+	"maps"
 	"net/http"
 	"path"
 	"slices"
@@ -258,6 +259,7 @@ func newJobExecutor(info jobInfo, sf stepFactory, rc *RunContext) common.Executo
 			logger.Errorf("##[error]%s", EscapeCommandData("Error while stop job container: "+err.Error()))
 		}
 		setJobResult(ctx, info, rc, jobError == nil)
+		rc.removeDockerActionImages(ctx)

 		return err
 	})
@@ -410,26 +412,38 @@ func setJobResult(ctx context.Context, info jobInfo, rc *RunContext, success boo
 	logger.WithField("jobResult", jobResult).Infof("Job %s", jobResultMessage)
 }

-// evaluateJobEnvAndDefaults resolves the job's env, defaults.run and container env once, as GitHub does at job setup.
-func evaluateJobEnvAndDefaults(ctx context.Context, rc *RunContext) error {
-	rc.ExprEval = rc.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx)
+// evaluateJobEnv returns the workflow and job env evaluated, as far as it got on error, leaving rc.Env raw.
+func evaluateJobEnv(ctx context.Context, rc *RunContext) (map[string]string, error) {
 	env := rc.GetEnv()
+	evaluated := maps.Clone(env)
+	evaluator := rc.NewExpressionEvaluatorWithEnv(ctx, evaluated)
 	var workflowEnv map[string]string
 	if rc.Run.Workflow.Env == nil {
-		if err := model.DecodeEvaluated("workflow env", rc.Run.Workflow.RawEnv, rc.ExprEval.shared(ctx).EvaluateYamlNode, &workflowEnv); err != nil {
-			return err
+		if err := model.DecodeEvaluated("workflow env", rc.Run.Workflow.RawEnv, evaluator.shared(ctx).EvaluateYamlNode, &workflowEnv); err != nil {
+			return evaluated, err
 		}
 	}
 	if workflowEnv != nil {
-		rc.Env = mergeMaps(workflowEnv, env)
-		rc.ExprEval = rc.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx)
+		evaluated = mergeMaps(workflowEnv, env)
+		evaluator = rc.NewExpressionEvaluatorWithEnv(ctx, evaluated)
 	}
 	var err error
 	for k, v := range env {
-		if rc.Env[k], err = rc.ExprEval.Interpolate(ctx, v); err != nil {
-			return fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate env %s: %w", k, err)
+		if evaluated[k], err = evaluator.Interpolate(ctx, v); err != nil {
+			return evaluated, fmt.Errorf("unable to interpolate env %s: %w", k, err)
 		}
 	}
+	return evaluated, nil
+}
+
+// evaluateJobEnvAndDefaults resolves the job's env, defaults.run and container env once, as GitHub does at job setup.
+func evaluateJobEnvAndDefaults(ctx context.Context, rc *RunContext) error {
+	env, err := evaluateJobEnv(ctx, rc)
+	rc.Env = env
+	rc.ExprEval = rc.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
 	var defaults model.Defaults
 	if err := model.DecodeEvaluated("defaults", rc.Run.Job().RawDefaults, rc.ExprEval.shared(ctx).EvaluateYamlNode, &defaults); err != nil {
 		return err
@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@ package runner
 import (
 	"archive/tar"
 	"bufio"
+	"cmp"
 	"context"
 	"crypto/rand"
 	"crypto/sha256"
@@ -22,6 +23,7 @@ import (
 	"regexp"
 	"runtime"
 	"slices"
+	"strconv"
 	"strings"
 	"sync"
 	"time"
@@ -64,6 +66,7 @@ type RunContext struct {
 	ExprEval            *expressionEvaluator
 	JobContainer        container.ExecutionsEnvironment
 	serviceContainers   []*serviceContainer
+	kubernetes          bool
 	containerSpec       model.ContainerSpec // container:, resolved once with platformImage
 	containerEnv        yaml.Node           // container.env of the kept containerSpec, decoded once the job env resolves
 	JobName             string
@@ -79,6 +82,10 @@ type RunContext struct {
 	jobRunDefaults      model.RunDefaults // defaults.run, resolved once at job setup as GitHub does
 	platformImage       string            // container.image or the runs-on pick, resolved once by isEnabled
 	jobIndex, jobTotal  int               // strategy.job-index and job-total, total 0 when unknown
+
+	jobEnv             map[string]string      // workflow and job env as evaluated for the container and service specs
+	dockerActionImages map[*model.Step]string // Dockerfile action images built for this job, removed when it ends
+
 	// summaryFileInitialized tracks which per-step summary files (workflow/step-summary-N.md)
 	// have already been created on the JobContainer. The runner sets up file-command files
 	// via JobContainer.Copy at the start of every phase, which truncates them — fine for
@@ -253,6 +260,9 @@ const sharedToolCacheVolume = "act-toolcache" // mounted only when the tool cach
 func (rc *RunContext) validVolumes() []string {
 	name := rc.jobContainerName()
 	volumes := slices.Clone(rc.Config.ValidVolumes)
+	if hostEnv, ok := rc.JobContainer.(*container.HostEnvironment); ok {
+		volumes = append(volumes, hostEnv.Path, hostEnv.GetActPath())
+	}
 	if rc.Config.SharedToolCache {
 		volumes = append(volumes, sharedToolCacheVolume)
 	}
@@ -351,6 +361,9 @@ func (rc *RunContext) GetBindsAndMounts(ctx context.Context) ([]string, map[stri
 			mounts[sharedToolCacheVolume] = toolCache
 		}
 	}
+	if hostEnv, ok := rc.JobContainer.(*container.HostEnvironment); ok {
+		binds = append(binds, hostEnv.Path+":"+hostEnv.Path, hostEnv.GetActPath()+":"+hostEnv.GetActPath())
+	}
 	mounts[name+"-env"] = ext.GetActPath() // runner-internal, never overridable

 	if workdir := ext.ToContainerPath(rc.Config.Workdir); !claimed[workdir] {
@@ -417,11 +430,7 @@ func (rc *RunContext) startHostEnvironment() common.Executor {
 			AllocatePTY: rc.Config.AllocatePTY,
 		}
 		rc.cleanUpJobContainer = rc.JobContainer.Remove()
-		for k, v := range rc.getRunnerContext(ctx) {
-			if v, ok := v.(string); ok {
-				rc.Env["RUNNER_"+strings.ToUpper(k)] = v
-			}
-		}
+		rc.setRunnerContextEnv(ctx)
 		for _, env := range os.Environ() {
 			if k, v, ok := strings.Cut(env, "="); ok {
 				// don't override
@@ -431,16 +440,70 @@ func (rc *RunContext) startHostEnvironment() common.Executor {
 			}
 		}

+		return rc.copyWorkflowFiles()(ctx)
+	}
+}
+
+func (rc *RunContext) setRunnerContextEnv(ctx context.Context) {
+	for k, v := range rc.getRunnerContext(ctx) {
+		if v, ok := v.(string); ok {
+			rc.Env["RUNNER_"+strings.ToUpper(k)] = v
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+var errKubernetesDocker = errors.New("docker actions and docker:// steps are not supported on Kubernetes")
+
+func (rc *RunContext) startKubernetesPod() common.Executor {
+	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
+		if rc.containerSpec.Options != "" || len(rc.containerSpec.Volumes) > 0 || rc.containerSpec.Credentials != nil {
+			return errors.New("container options, volumes and credentials are not supported on Kubernetes")
+		}
+		var options container.KubernetesOptions
+		if rc.Config.KubernetesPicker != nil {
+			options = rc.Config.KubernetesPicker(rc.runsOnPlatformNames(ctx))
+		}
+		options.MaxLifetime, options.ForcePull = rc.Config.ContainerMaxLifetime, rc.Config.ForcePull
+		pod, err := container.NewKubernetesPod(options)
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		services, err := rc.jobServices(ctx, "")
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		for _, serviceID := range slices.Sorted(maps0.Keys(services)) {
+			input := services[serviceID]
+			if input.Username != "" || len(input.Binds) > 0 || len(input.Mounts) > 0 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("service %s: volumes and credentials are not supported on Kubernetes", serviceID)
+			}
+			rc.serviceContainers = append(rc.serviceContainers, &serviceContainer{name: serviceID, image: input.Image, container: pod.ServiceContainer(serviceID, input)})
+		}
+
+		logWriter := rc.commandLogWriter(ctx)
+		rc.JobContainer = pod.JobContainer(&container.NewContainerInput{
+			Entrypoint: []string{"tail", "-f", "/dev/null"},
+			WorkingDir: (&container.LinuxContainerEnvironmentExtensions{}).ToContainerPath(rc.Config.Workdir),
+			Image:      rc.platformImage,
+			Name:       rc.jobContainerName(),
+			Env:        []string{"LANG=C.UTF-8"},
+			Stdout:     logWriter,
+			Stderr:     logWriter,
+		})
+		rc.cleanUpJobContainer = func(ctx context.Context) error {
+			rc.printServiceLogs(ctx)
+			return rc.JobContainer.Remove()(ctx)
+		}
+		defer printStartJobContainerGroup(ctx, rc.platformImage, rc.jobContainerName(), "")()
 		return common.NewPipelineExecutor(
-			rc.JobContainer.Copy(rc.JobContainer.GetActPath()+"/", &container.FileEntry{
-				Name: "workflow/event.json",
-				Mode: 0o644,
-				Body: rc.EventJSON,
-			}, &container.FileEntry{
-				Name: "workflow/envs.txt",
-				Mode: 0o666,
-				Body: "",
-			}),
+			rc.JobContainer.Create(nil, nil),
+			rc.startServiceContainers(),
+			rc.JobContainer.Start(false),
+			func(ctx context.Context) error { rc.setRunnerContextEnv(ctx); return nil },
+			rc.captureJobContainerInfo(),
+			rc.copyWorkflowFiles(),
+			rc.reportUnstartedServices(),
+			rc.waitForServiceContainers(),
 		)(ctx)
 	}
 }
@@ -470,7 +533,6 @@ func WithJobVolumeCleanup(ctx context.Context, deferCleanup func(common.Executor
 func (rc *RunContext) startJobContainer() common.Executor {
 	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
 		rc.deferVolumeCleanup, _ = ctx.Value(jobVolumeCleanupKey{}).(func(common.Executor))
-		logger := common.Logger(ctx)
 		image := rc.platformImage
 		logWriter := rc.commandLogWriter(ctx)

@@ -483,6 +545,7 @@ func (rc *RunContext) startJobContainer() common.Executor {
 		// For gitea, to support --volumes-from <container_name_or_id> in options.
 		// We need to set the container name to the environment variable.
 		rc.Env["JOB_CONTAINER_NAME"] = name
+		delete(rc.jobEnv, "JOB_CONTAINER_NAME") // the runtime name wins over a workflow env of the same name

 		envList := make([]string, 0)

@@ -495,78 +558,13 @@ func (rc *RunContext) startJobContainer() common.Executor {
 		networkName, createAndDeleteNetwork := rc.networkNameForGitea()
 		rc.cleanUpJobContainer = rc.cleanupJobResources(networkName, createAndDeleteNetwork, false)

-		var services map[string]*model.ContainerSpec
-		if err := model.DecodeEvaluated("job services", rc.Run.Job().RawServices, rc.ExprEval.shared(ctx).EvaluateYamlNode, &services); err != nil {
+		services, err := rc.jobServices(ctx, networkName)
+		if err != nil {
 			return err
 		}
 		for _, serviceID := range slices.Sorted(maps0.Keys(services)) {
-			spec := services[serviceID]
-			if spec == nil {
-				return fmt.Errorf("service %s has no container definition", serviceID)
-			}
-			spec.Image = strings.TrimPrefix(spec.Image, "docker://")
-			// GitHub compatibility: skip services whose image evaluates to an
-			// empty string, enabling conditional services via expressions
-			if spec.Image == "" {
-				logger.Infof("The service '%s' will not be started because the container definition has an empty image.", serviceID)
-				continue
-			}
-			envs := make([]string, 0, len(spec.Env)+len(rc.Config.ProxyEnv))
-			// a service reaches the internet the way the job does; its own env still wins
-			for k, v := range mergeMaps(rc.Config.ProxyEnv, spec.Env) {
-				envs = append(envs, fmt.Sprintf("%s=%s", k, v))
-			}
-			// keep these local: reusing username/password would overwrite the
-			// credentials the job container is pulled with further down
-			serviceUsername, servicePassword, err := registryCredentials(spec.Credentials, "")
-			if err != nil {
-				return fmt.Errorf("failed to handle service %s credentials: %w", serviceID, err)
-			}
-			cmd := spec.Cmd
-			if len(cmd) == 0 && spec.Command != "" {
-				if cmd, err = shellquote.Split(spec.Command); err != nil {
-					return fmt.Errorf("failed to parse service %s command: %w", serviceID, err)
-				}
-			}
-			var entrypoint []string
-			if spec.Entrypoint != "" {
-				entrypoint = []string{spec.Entrypoint}
-			}
-
-			serviceBinds, serviceMounts, _ := splitVolumes(spec.Volumes)
-
-			exposedPorts, portBindings, err := nat.ParsePortSpecs(spec.Ports)
-			if err != nil {
-				return fmt.Errorf("failed to parse service %s ports: %w", serviceID, err)
-			}
-
-			serviceContainerName := createContainerName(rc.jobContainerName(), serviceID)
-			serviceLog := common.NewLineWriter(rawLogLine(ctx)) // raw, so a service's output cannot set the job's env, outputs or state
-			c := newContainer(&container.NewContainerInput{
-				Name:            serviceContainerName,
-				Image:           spec.Image,
-				Username:        serviceUsername,
-				Password:        servicePassword,
-				Entrypoint:      entrypoint,
-				Cmd:             cmd,
-				Env:             envs,
-				Mounts:          serviceMounts,
-				Binds:           serviceBinds,
-				Stdout:          serviceLog,
-				Stderr:          serviceLog,
-				Privileged:      rc.Config.Privileged,
-				UsernsMode:      rc.Config.UsernsMode,
-				Platform:        rc.Config.ContainerArchitecture,
-				AutoRemove:      false, // so a dead service's log survives, cleanupJobResources removes it
-				WorkflowOptions: spec.Options,
-				NetworkMode:     networkName,
-				NetworkAliases:  []string{serviceID},
-				ExposedPorts:    exposedPorts,
-				PortBindings:    portBindings,
-				ValidVolumes:    rc.Config.ValidVolumes, // not validVolumes(), a service gets no docker socket
-				AllocatePTY:     rc.Config.AllocatePTY,
-			})
-			rc.serviceContainers = append(rc.serviceContainers, &serviceContainer{name: serviceID, image: spec.Image, container: c})
+			input := services[serviceID]
+			rc.serviceContainers = append(rc.serviceContainers, &serviceContainer{name: serviceID, image: input.Image, container: newContainer(input)})
 		}

 		// For Gitea, `jobContainerNetwork` should be the same as `networkName`
@@ -575,7 +573,7 @@ func (rc *RunContext) startJobContainer() common.Executor {
 		ext := container.LinuxContainerEnvironmentExtensions{}
 		containerInput := &container.NewContainerInput{
 			Cmd:             nil,
-			Entrypoint:      []string{"sleep", fmt.Sprint(rc.Config.ContainerMaxLifetime.Round(time.Second).Seconds())},
+			Entrypoint:      []string{"sleep", strconv.FormatInt(int64(rc.Config.ContainerMaxLifetime.Round(time.Second).Seconds()), 10)},
 			WorkingDir:      ext.ToContainerPath(rc.Config.Workdir),
 			Image:           image,
 			Username:        username,
@@ -623,20 +621,86 @@ func (rc *RunContext) startJobContainer() common.Executor {
 			rc.JobContainer.Create(rc.Config.ContainerCapAdd, rc.Config.ContainerCapDrop),
 			rc.JobContainer.Start(false),
 			rc.captureJobContainerInfo(),
-			rc.JobContainer.Copy(rc.JobContainer.GetActPath()+"/", &container.FileEntry{
-				Name: "workflow/event.json",
-				Mode: 0o644,
-				Body: rc.EventJSON,
-			}, &container.FileEntry{
-				Name: "workflow/envs.txt",
-				Mode: 0o666,
-				Body: "",
-			}),
+			rc.copyWorkflowFiles(),
 			rc.waitForServiceContainers(),
 		)(ctx)
 	}
 }

+func (rc *RunContext) jobServices(ctx context.Context, networkName string) (map[string]*container.NewContainerInput, error) {
+	var services map[string]*model.ContainerSpec
+	if err := model.DecodeEvaluated("job services", rc.Run.Job().RawServices, rc.NewExpressionEvaluatorWithEnv(ctx, mergeMaps(rc.GetEnv(), rc.jobEnv)).shared(ctx).EvaluateYamlNode, &services); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	inputs := map[string]*container.NewContainerInput{}
+	for _, serviceID := range slices.Sorted(maps0.Keys(services)) {
+		spec := services[serviceID]
+		if spec == nil {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("service %s has no container definition", serviceID)
+		}
+		spec.Image = strings.TrimPrefix(spec.Image, "docker://")
+		// GitHub compatibility: skip services whose image evaluates to an
+		// empty string, enabling conditional services via expressions
+		if spec.Image == "" {
+			common.Logger(ctx).Infof("The service '%s' will not be started because the container definition has an empty image.", serviceID)
+			continue
+		}
+		envs := make([]string, 0, len(spec.Env)+len(rc.Config.ProxyEnv))
+		// a service reaches the internet the way the job does; its own env still wins
+		for k, v := range mergeMaps(rc.Config.ProxyEnv, spec.Env) {
+			envs = append(envs, fmt.Sprintf("%s=%s", k, v))
+		}
+		serviceUsername, servicePassword, err := registryCredentials(spec.Credentials, "")
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to handle service %s credentials: %w", serviceID, err)
+		}
+		cmd := spec.Cmd
+		if len(cmd) == 0 && spec.Command != "" {
+			if cmd, err = shellquote.Split(spec.Command); err != nil {
+				return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to parse service %s command: %w", serviceID, err)
+			}
+		}
+		var entrypoint []string
+		if spec.Entrypoint != "" {
+			entrypoint = []string{spec.Entrypoint}
+		}
+
+		serviceBinds, serviceMounts, _ := splitVolumes(spec.Volumes)
+
+		exposedPorts, portBindings, err := nat.ParsePortSpecs(spec.Ports)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to parse service %s ports: %w", serviceID, err)
+		}
+
+		serviceLog := common.NewLineWriter(rawLogLine(ctx)) // raw, so a service's output cannot set the job's env, outputs or state
+		inputs[serviceID] = &container.NewContainerInput{
+			Name:            createContainerName(rc.jobContainerName(), serviceID),
+			Image:           spec.Image,
+			Username:        serviceUsername,
+			Password:        servicePassword,
+			Entrypoint:      entrypoint,
+			Cmd:             cmd,
+			Env:             envs,
+			Mounts:          serviceMounts,
+			Binds:           serviceBinds,
+			Stdout:          serviceLog,
+			Stderr:          serviceLog,
+			Privileged:      rc.Config.Privileged,
+			UsernsMode:      rc.Config.UsernsMode,
+			Platform:        rc.Config.ContainerArchitecture,
+			AutoRemove:      false, // so a dead service's log survives, cleanupJobResources removes it
+			WorkflowOptions: spec.Options,
+			NetworkMode:     networkName,
+			NetworkAliases:  []string{serviceID},
+			ExposedPorts:    exposedPorts,
+			PortBindings:    portBindings,
+			ValidVolumes:    rc.Config.ValidVolumes, // not validVolumes(), a service gets no docker socket
+			AllocatePTY:     rc.Config.AllocatePTY,
+		}
+	}
+	return inputs, nil
+}
+
 func (rc *RunContext) commandLogWriter(ctx context.Context) io.Writer {
 	return common.NewLineWriter(rc.commandHandler(ctx), rawLogLine(ctx))
 }
@@ -783,6 +847,14 @@ func (rc *RunContext) stopJobContainer() common.Executor {
 	}
 }

+func (rc *RunContext) removeDockerActionImages(ctx context.Context) {
+	for _, image := range rc.dockerActionImages {
+		if _, err := container.RemoveImage(ctx, image, true, false); err != nil {
+			common.Logger(ctx).Warnf("failed to remove action image %s: %v", image, err)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
 func (rc *RunContext) pullServicesImages(forcePull bool) common.Executor {
 	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
 		execs := []common.Executor{}
@@ -975,6 +1047,13 @@ func (svc *serviceContainer) healthOutputSuffix() string {
 	return ": " + svc.info.HealthOutput
 }

+func (rc *RunContext) copyWorkflowFiles() common.Executor {
+	return rc.JobContainer.Copy(rc.JobContainer.GetActPath()+"/",
+		&container.FileEntry{Name: "workflow/event.json", Mode: 0o644, Body: rc.EventJSON},
+		&container.FileEntry{Name: "workflow/envs.txt", Mode: 0o666},
+	)
+}
+
 // captureJobContainerInfo is a convenience: failing to describe the container must not
 // fail the job.
 func (rc *RunContext) captureJobContainerInfo() common.Executor {
@@ -1043,9 +1122,12 @@ func (rc *RunContext) interpolateOutputs() common.Executor {
 func (rc *RunContext) startContainer() common.Executor {
 	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
 		var err error
-		if rc.IsHostEnv() {
+		switch {
+		case rc.kubernetes:
+			err = rc.startKubernetesPod()(ctx)
+		case rc.IsHostEnv():
 			err = rc.startHostEnvironment()(ctx)
-		} else {
+		default:
 			err = rc.startJobContainer()(ctx)
 		}
 		if err != nil {
@@ -1154,7 +1236,7 @@ func (rc *RunContext) Executor() (common.Executor, error) {
 }

 func (rc *RunContext) runsOnImage(ctx context.Context) (string, error) {
-	if rc.Run.Job().RunsOn() == nil {
+	if rc.Run.Job().RunsOn() == nil && rc.containerSpec.Image == "" {
 		common.Logger(ctx).Errorf("'runs-on' key not defined in %s", rc.String())
 	}

@@ -1192,22 +1274,23 @@ func (rc *RunContext) runsOnPlatformNames(ctx context.Context) []string {

 // resolvePlatformImage evaluates the job's container once for every consumer, skipping one whose image is empty as GitHub does.
 func (rc *RunContext) resolvePlatformImage(ctx context.Context) error {
+	rc.jobEnv, _ = evaluateJobEnv(ctx, rc) // a broken env fails the job at setup instead
 	withoutEnv, env := splitContainerEnv(rc.Run.Job().RawContainer)
 	var spec model.ContainerSpec
-	if err := model.DecodeEvaluated("container", withoutEnv, rc.ExprEval.shared(ctx).EvaluateYamlNode, &spec); err != nil {
+	if err := model.DecodeEvaluated("container", withoutEnv, rc.NewExpressionEvaluatorWithEnv(ctx, rc.jobEnv).shared(ctx).EvaluateYamlNode, &spec); err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
 	spec.Image = strings.TrimPrefix(spec.Image, "docker://")
 	if spec.Image != "" || imagelessContainer(withoutEnv) {
 		rc.containerSpec, rc.containerEnv = spec, env
 	}
-	if rc.containerSpec.Image != "" {
-		rc.platformImage = rc.containerSpec.Image
-		return nil
-	}
 	image, err := rc.runsOnImage(ctx)
-	rc.platformImage = image
-	return err
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	image, rc.kubernetes = strings.CutPrefix(image, "kubernetes://")
+	rc.platformImage = cmp.Or(rc.containerSpec.Image, image)
+	return nil
 }

 // imagelessContainer reports a container: mapping without an image key, which configures the runs-on image.
@@ -251,7 +251,6 @@ func startJobContainerInputs(t *testing.T, workflowYAML string, cfg *Config) []*
 	rc := &RunContext{
 		Name:   "test",
 		Config: cfg,
-		Env:    map[string]string{},
 		Run: &model.Run{
 			JobID:    "job",
 			Workflow: workflow,
@@ -362,6 +361,29 @@ jobs:
 	require.Equal(t, "sleep", job.Entrypoint[0])
 	require.Equal(t, "--label ${{ github.job }}", job.WorkflowOptions)
 	require.Equal(t, "${{ vars.TITLE }}", job.Password)
+
+	inputs = startJobContainerInputs(t, `
+env:
+  REG_USER: ${{ vars.REG_USER }}
+  TEXT: ${{ vars.TEXT }}
+  JOB_CONTAINER_NAME: from-workflow
+jobs:
+  job:
+    container:
+      image: node:20
+      credentials: {username: "${{ env.REG_USER }}", password: pass}
+    services:
+      redis:
+        image: redis:latest
+        credentials: {username: "${{ env.REG_USER }}", password: pass}
+        env: {TEXT: "${{ env.TEXT }}"}
+        options: --volumes-from ${{ env.JOB_CONTAINER_NAME }}
+`, &Config{Vars: map[string]string{"REG_USER": "user", "TEXT": "${{ 'literal' }}"}})
+	redis, job = inputs[0], inputs[1]
+	require.Equal(t, "user", job.Username)
+	require.Equal(t, "user", redis.Username)
+	require.Equal(t, []string{"TEXT=${{ 'literal' }}"}, redis.Env)
+	require.Equal(t, "--volumes-from "+job.Name, redis.WorkflowOptions)
 }

 // Only the workflow's options may be stripped later, so the two sources have to reach the
@@ -662,6 +684,15 @@ func TestRunContextValidVolumes(t *testing.T) {
 	assert.Contains(t, rc.validVolumes(), rc.Config.Workdir)
 	rc.Config.PresetGitHubContext = &model.GithubContext{}
 	assert.Contains(t, rc.validVolumes(), filepath.FromSlash("/workspace/1"))
+
+	hostEnv := &container.HostEnvironment{Path: t.TempDir(), ActPath: t.TempDir()}
+	rc.JobContainer = hostEnv
+	rc.Config.BindWorkdir = false
+	rc.Config.SharedToolCache = true
+	binds, mounts := rc.GetBindsAndMounts(t.Context())
+	assert.Subset(t, binds, []string{hostEnv.Path + ":" + hostEnv.Path, hostEnv.GetActPath() + ":" + hostEnv.GetActPath()})
+	assert.Contains(t, mounts, sharedToolCacheVolume)
+	assert.Equal(t, binds, container.SanitizeBinds(t.Context(), rc.validVolumes(), binds))
 }

 func TestCleanupJobResourcesCleansServicesWithoutJobContainer(t *testing.T) {
@@ -730,6 +761,20 @@ func TestCleanupJobVolumesReapsAbandonedDeferredCleanup(t *testing.T) {
 	assert.ElementsMatch(t, []string{"became-active", "remove-failed", "foreign", "fresh", "unknown-age"}, slices.Collect(maps.Keys(volumes)))
 }

+func TestRemoveDockerActionImagesByTag(t *testing.T) {
+	var removed []string
+	fakeDockerDaemon(t, func(writer http.ResponseWriter, request *http.Request) {
+		if request.Method == http.MethodDelete {
+			removed = append(removed, strings.TrimPrefix(request.URL.Path, "/v1.47/images/"))
+			_, _ = io.WriteString(writer, "[]")
+			return
+		}
+		_, _ = io.WriteString(writer, `{"Id":"sha256:shared"}`)
+	})
+	(&RunContext{dockerActionImages: map[*model.Step]string{{}: "act-action-dockeraction:latest-job"}}).removeDockerActionImages(t.Context())
+	assert.Equal(t, []string{"act-action-dockeraction:latest-job"}, removed)
+}
+
 func TestCleanupJobResourcesContinuesAfterFailure(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Setenv("TMPDIR", "/tmp")
 	proxyDir := t.TempDir()
@@ -960,7 +1005,6 @@ func TestGetGithubContextRef(t *testing.T) {
 func createIfTestRunContext(jobs map[string]*model.Job) *RunContext {
 	rc := &RunContext{
 		Config: &Config{Workdir: ".", PlatformPicker: func([]string) string { return "ubuntu-latest" }},
-		Env:    map[string]string{},
 		Run: &model.Run{
 			JobID: "job1",
 			Workflow: &model.Workflow{
@@ -1037,9 +1081,12 @@ func TestRunContextIsEnabled(t *testing.T) {
 	// success()
 	rc := createIfTestRunContext(map[string]*model.Job{
 		"job1": createJob(t, `runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+env:
+  BROKEN: ${{ fromJSON('invalid') }}
 if: success()`, ""),
 	})
 	assertObject.True(rc.isEnabled(context.Background()))
+	require.Error(t, evaluateJobEnvAndDefaults(context.Background(), rc))

 	rc = createIfTestRunContext(map[string]*model.Job{
 		"job1": createJob(t, `runs-on: ubuntu-latest`, "failure"),
@@ -1629,10 +1676,13 @@ func createRunsOnRunContext(t *testing.T, runsOn string) *RunContext {
 	})
 }

-func TestRunContextContainerImageCannotSelectHost(t *testing.T) {
+func TestRunContextContainerImageCannotSelectBackend(t *testing.T) {
 	rc := createIfTestRunContext(map[string]*model.Job{"job1": createJob(t, "container: -self-hosted", "")})
 	require.NoError(t, rc.resolvePlatformImage(t.Context()))
 	assert.False(t, rc.IsHostEnv())
+
+	rc = createIfTestRunContext(map[string]*model.Job{"job1": createJob(t, "runs-on: ${{ fromJSON('x') }}\ncontainer: node", "")})
+	require.ErrorContains(t, rc.resolvePlatformImage(t.Context()), "runs-on")
 }

 func TestRunContextImageOS(t *testing.T) {
@@ -75,6 +75,7 @@ type Config struct {
 	// AppURL. It is never set for github.com or a GithubMirror, so the token stays on-instance.
 	DefaultActionInstanceIsSelfHosted bool
 	PlatformPicker                    func(labels []string) string
+	KubernetesPicker                  func(labels []string) container.KubernetesOptions
 	JobLoggerLevel                    *log.Level    // the level of job logger
 	ValidVolumes                      []string      // only volumes (and bind mounts) in this slice can be mounted on the job container or service containers
 	SharedToolCache                   bool          // one tool cache for all jobs instead of one per job
@@ -221,7 +221,6 @@ func (j *TestJobFileInfo) runTest(ctx context.Context, t *testing.T, cfg *Config
 		ContainerNamePrefix: strings.ReplaceAll(t.Name(), "/", "-") + "-" + testRunID,
 		// 0 would run jobs runtime.NumCPU()-wide, making the network peak machine-dependent
 		MaxParallel:           2,
-		ForceRebuild:          true,
 		Env:                   cfg.Env,
 		Secrets:               cfg.Secrets,
 		GitHubInstance:        "github.com",
@@ -434,6 +433,8 @@ func TestRunEventHostEnvironment(t *testing.T) {

 		tables = append(tables, []TestJobFileInfo{
 			{workdir, "nix-prepend-path", "push", "", platforms, secrets},
+			{workdir, "uses-docker-url", "push", "", platforms, secrets},
+			{workdir, "local-action-dockerfile", "push", "", platforms, secrets},
 			{workdir, "builtin-checkout", "push", "", platforms, secrets},
 			{workdir, "inputs-via-env-context", "push", "", platforms, secrets},
 			{workdir, "do-not-leak-step-env-in-composite", "push", "", platforms, secrets},
@@ -451,6 +452,8 @@ func TestRunEventHostEnvironment(t *testing.T) {
 				requireHostTools(t, "pwsh")
 			case "nix-prepend-path":
 				requireHostTools(t, "nix")
+			case "uses-docker-url", "local-action-dockerfile":
+				requireDockerSharingFiles(t)
 			}
 			t.Parallel()
 			hostPlanSlots <- struct{}{}
@@ -61,11 +61,14 @@ func (sal *stepActionLocal) main() common.Executor {
 				treader := tar.NewReader(tars)
 				header, err := treader.Next()
 				if errors.Is(err, io.EOF) {
+					tars.Close()
 					return nil, nil, os.ErrNotExist
 				} else if err != nil {
+					tars.Close()
 					return nil, nil, err
 				}
 				if header.FileInfo().Mode()&os.ModeSymlink == os.ModeSymlink {
+					tars.Close()
 					spath, err = symlinkJoin(spath, header.Linkname, containerActionPath)
 					if err != nil {
 						return nil, nil, err
@@ -56,6 +56,9 @@ func (sd *stepDocker) runUsesContainer() common.Executor {
 	step := sd.Step

 	return func(ctx context.Context) error {
+		if rc.kubernetes {
+			return errKubernetesDocker
+		}
 		image := strings.TrimPrefix(step.Uses, "docker://")
 		cmd, err := shellquote.Split(step.With["args"])
 		if err != nil {
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ import (
 	"bytes"
 	"context"
 	"io"
+	"slices"
 	"strings"
 	"testing"

@@ -151,22 +152,35 @@ func TestStepDockerNewStepContainerAllocatePTY(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }

-func TestStepDockerNewStepContainerNetworkMode(t *testing.T) {
+func TestStepDockerNewStepContainerNetworkModeAndPath(t *testing.T) {
+	inheritedPath := (&container.LinuxContainerEnvironmentExtensions{}).DefaultPathVariable()
 	cases := []struct {
 		name          string
 		platform      string
+		path          string
 		expectDefault bool
+		keepsPath     bool
 	}{
 		{
 			name:          "docker mode attaches to job container network",
 			platform:      "node:14",
+			path:          inheritedPath,
 			expectDefault: false,
+			keepsPath:     true,
 		},
 		{
-			name:          "host mode uses default network",
+			name:          "host mode uses default network and the image's PATH",
 			platform:      "-self-hosted",
+			path:          inheritedPath,
 			expectDefault: true,
 		},
+		{
+			name:          "host mode keeps a PATH that is not the runner's",
+			platform:      "-self-hosted",
+			path:          "/custom/bin",
+			expectDefault: true,
+			keepsPath:     true,
+		},
 	}

 	for _, tc := range cases {
@@ -208,6 +222,7 @@ func TestStepDockerNewStepContainerNetworkMode(t *testing.T) {
 					ID:   "1",
 					Uses: "docker://alpine:3.20",
 				},
+				env: map[string]string{"PATH": tc.path},
 			}
 			sd.RunContext.ExprEval = sd.RunContext.NewExpressionEvaluator(ctx)

@@ -215,6 +230,7 @@ func TestStepDockerNewStepContainerNetworkMode(t *testing.T) {
 			assert.Equal(t, tc.expectDefault, sd.RunContext.IsHostEnv(), "IsHostEnv mismatch for platform %q", tc.platform)

 			newStepContainer(ctx, sd, "alpine:3.20", []string{"echo", "hello"}, nil, "")
+			assert.Equal(t, tc.keepsPath, slices.Contains(captured.Env, "PATH="+tc.path))

 			if tc.expectDefault {
 				assert.Equal(t, "default", captured.NetworkMode,
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ jobs:
  test:
    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
    steps:
+      - run: printf 'workspace=from-host-step\n' > workspace-marker
      - uses: docker://node:24-bookworm-slim
        with:
          somekey: somevalue
@@ -16,8 +17,10 @@ jobs:
        with:
          entrypoint: /bin/sh
          args: -c -- uname -a
-      - uses: docker://node:24-bookworm-slim
+      - id: workspace
+        uses: docker://node:24-bookworm-slim
        with:
          entrypoint: /bin/sh
-          args: -c 'uname -a'
+          args: -c 'uname -a && cat "$GITHUB_WORKSPACE/workspace-marker" >> "$GITHUB_OUTPUT"'
+      - run: test '${{ steps.workspace.outputs.workspace }}' = 'from-host-step'

@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+# Jobs as Kubernetes pods
+
+A `kubernetes` label runs each job as a pod, without a Docker daemon:
+
+```text
+ubuntu-latest:kubernetes://docker.gitea.com/runner-images:ubuntu-latest
+```
+
+The pod has a `job` container from the label's image or the job's `container.image`, plus one container per service.
+
+## Setup
+
+In a cluster, the runner uses its pod's service account and namespace. [`examples/kubernetes/kubernetes-pods.yaml`](../examples/kubernetes/kubernetes-pods.yaml) deploys a runner with these permissions:
+
+| Resource | Verbs |
+| --- | --- |
+| `pods` | `create`, `get`, `list`, `delete` |
+| `pods/exec` | `create`, `get` |
+| `pods/log` | `get` |
+| `secrets` | `create`, `delete` |
+
+Outside a cluster, it uses the current context of the first file in `$KUBECONFIG`, or of `~/.kube/config`, which must authenticate with a token, token file or client certificate. The cluster must run Kubernetes 1.30 or later, and job images need `sh`, `tar`, `tail` and `env`.
+
+## Configuration
+
+```yaml
+kubernetes:
+  kubeconfig: "" # instead of the service account
+  namespace: "" # defaults to the service account's, the kubeconfig context's, or default
+  pod_template: # merged under each job pod, a container named job merges into the job container, one named $services into each service container
+    spec:
+      containers:
+        - name: job
+          resources:
+            limits:
+              memory: 4Gi
+        - name: $services
+          resources:
+            limits:
+              memory: 1Gi
+  pod_templates: # merged over pod_template for jobs whose runs-on has the label they are keyed by
+    gpu:
+      spec:
+        nodeSelector:
+          nvidia.com/gpu.present: "true"
+```
+
+A job with `runs-on: [linux, gpu]` gets the `linux` and then the `gpu` entry of `pod_templates` merged over `pod_template`, while its image comes from the first of its labels the runner has. A template volume named `workspace` or `act` replaces the `emptyDir` the runner mounts at the workspace or at `/var/run/act`, for example to limit its size. Images are pulled by the cluster's `imagePullPolicy` default, a template's, or always with `container.force_pull`.
+
+Job pods mount no service account token unless the template sets `automountServiceAccountToken: true`. Job pods and their Secrets are labeled `app.kubernetes.io/managed-by: gitea-runner` and `com.gitea.runner.uuid: <runner UUID>`. The idle cleanup removes those the runner did not get to remove, once they are older than `runner.workdir_cleanup_age`.
+
+## Services
+
+Services share the pod's network, so a step reaches one by its id or `localhost`, and two services cannot listen on the same port. An id is lowercased and has characters other than letters, digits and `-` replaced by `-`, so the service `my_db` is reached as `my-db`. Pass secrets to services through `env`, as `command` is visible in the pod spec. Of `options`, only `--health-*` is supported. They become a startup probe with Docker's defaults, which stops a service that fails its retries, so the job fails as on Docker.
+
+## Unsupported
+
+Docker actions, `docker://` steps, and the `options`, `volumes` and `credentials` of the job container fail the job, as do `volumes` and `credentials` of services. Run such workflows on a [Docker in Docker](../examples/kubernetes/README.md) runner. Pull private images with `imagePullSecrets` in `pod_template`.
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
-# OpenTelemetry tracing
+# OpenTelemetry

-The runner can send a trace of every job it runs to an OpenTelemetry collector or any backend that accepts OTLP. Each job becomes a trace with a span per step, so you can see where CI time goes and which steps fail. Tracing stays off until you set an endpoint.
+The runner can send a trace of every job it runs, and its metrics, to an OpenTelemetry collector or any backend that accepts OTLP. Each job becomes a trace with a span per step, so you can see where CI time goes and which steps fail. Export stays off until you set an endpoint.

 ## Setup

@@ -12,14 +12,20 @@ OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_ENDPOINT=http://localhost:4318

 | Variable | Purpose |
 | --- | --- |
-| `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_ENDPOINT` | Collector base URL, traces go to `/v1/traces` under it |
-| `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_TRACES_ENDPOINT` | Full traces URL, takes precedence over the base URL |
-| `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_HEADERS`, `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_TRACES_HEADERS` | Request headers such as an API key, as comma-separated `key=value` pairs with URL-encoded values |
+| `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_ENDPOINT` | Collector base URL, traces go to `/v1/traces` and metrics to `/v1/metrics` under it |
+| `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_TRACES_ENDPOINT`, `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_METRICS_ENDPOINT` | Full URL per signal, takes precedence over the base URL |
+| `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_HEADERS` | Request headers such as an API key, as comma-separated `key=value` pairs with URL-encoded values |
+| `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_TIMEOUT` | Export timeout in milliseconds, default 10000, 0 for none |
+| `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_COMPRESSION` | `gzip` or `none`, default `none` |
+| `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_CERTIFICATE` | PEM file of the CA to trust instead of the system ones |
+| `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_CLIENT_CERTIFICATE`, `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_CLIENT_KEY` | PEM files of the client certificate and key for mTLS |
 | `OTEL_SERVICE_NAME`, `OTEL_RESOURCE_ATTRIBUTES` | Resource attributes, the service name defaults to `gitea-runner` |
 | `OTEL_TRACES_SAMPLER`, `OTEL_BSP_*` | Sampling and batching, see the [SDK variables](https://opentelemetry.io/docs/specs/otel/configuration/sdk-environment-variables/) |
-| `OTEL_SDK_DISABLED=true`, `OTEL_TRACES_EXPORTER=none` | Turn tracing off |
+| `OTEL_METRIC_EXPORT_INTERVAL`, `OTEL_METRIC_EXPORT_TIMEOUT` | Metrics export interval and timeout in milliseconds, default 60000 and 30000, a timeout of 0 for none |
+| `OTEL_SDK_DISABLED=true` | Turn all export off |
+| `OTEL_TRACES_EXPORTER=none`, `OTEL_METRICS_EXPORTER=none` | Turn traces or metrics off |

-Only the `http/protobuf` protocol is supported.
+Except for the endpoint, each `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_*` variable has `TRACES` and `METRICS` variants such as `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_METRICS_HEADERS`, which take precedence for that signal. Only the `otlp` exporter over the `http/protobuf` protocol is supported.

 ## What is sent

@@ -35,12 +41,12 @@ Jobs receive `TRACEPARENT`, so tools in a job that use OpenTelemetry can add the

 ## Metrics

-Metrics stay on the Prometheus endpoint enabled by `metrics.enabled`. To get them into OpenTelemetry, scrape `/metrics` with the collector's `prometheus` receiver.
+The metrics of the Prometheus endpoint are also exported, under the same names and whether or not `metrics.enabled` is set. They are sent every export interval and once more on shutdown. If your collector only accepts traces, set `OTEL_METRICS_EXPORTER=none`.

 ## Security

- OTLP has no authentication of its own. Send to a collector on the runner's host that holds the backend credentials, as the [OpenTelemetry security guide](https://opentelemetry.io/docs/security/config-best-practices/) recommends, or use `https` with a token in `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_HEADERS`. Over plain `http`, headers travel unencrypted.
- TLS certificates are verified against the system CA bundle, set `SSL_CERT_FILE` to use your own. Client certificates are not supported, use a local collector for mTLS. Redirects are not followed, so headers only reach the configured endpoint.
+- OTLP has no authentication of its own. Send to a collector on the runner's host that holds the backend credentials, as the [OpenTelemetry security guide](https://opentelemetry.io/docs/security/config-best-practices/) recommends, or use `https` with a token in `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_HEADERS` or a client certificate. Over plain `http`, headers travel unencrypted.
+- TLS certificates are verified against the system CA bundle, or only against `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_CERTIFICATE` when set. Redirects are not followed, so headers only reach the configured endpoint.
 - Jobs in containers never see the runner's `OTEL_*` variables. Jobs on the host inherit the runner's whole environment, headers included, and can read its files anyway since they run as the same user.
 - Every workflow can read `runner.envs`, so never put credentials there. Point jobs at a collector that holds them instead, keeping in mind that any workflow can then send data through it.
 - Traces carry the repository and step names of every job, private repositories included, so give the collector the same access controls as the runner's logs.
@@ -31,6 +31,7 @@ func TestCompatibility(t *testing.T) {
 	t.Run("cancellation_and_log_streaming", testRunCancellation)
 	t.Run("dispatch", testWorkflowDispatch)
 	t.Run("ephemeral", testEphemeralRunner)
+	t.Run("kubernetes", testKubernetes)
 }

 func testPayloads(t *testing.T) {
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ func testEphemeralRunner(t *testing.T) {
 	case <-time.After(5 * time.Second):
 		t.Fatal("ephemeral runner was not deleted")
 	}
-	if !poller.Unregistered() {
+	if !poller.RegistrationRejected() {
 		t.Fatal("ephemeral runner stopped without being deleted")
 	}
 }
@@ -23,6 +23,7 @@ import (

 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/act/container"

+	"github.com/moby/moby/api/pkg/stdcopy"
 	apicontainer "github.com/moby/moby/api/types/container"
 	"github.com/moby/moby/api/types/network"
 	mobyclient "github.com/moby/moby/client"
@@ -306,9 +307,14 @@ func randomToken(n int) string {
 }

 func (f *GiteaFixture) exec(ctx context.Context, cmd []string) (string, error) {
-	created, err := f.cli.ExecCreate(ctx, f.id, mobyclient.ExecCreateOptions{
+	return containerExec(ctx, f.cli, f.id, "git", nil, cmd...) // gitea refuses root
+}
+
+func containerExec(ctx context.Context, cli mobyclient.APIClient, id, user string, stdin io.Reader, cmd ...string) (string, error) {
+	created, err := cli.ExecCreate(ctx, id, mobyclient.ExecCreateOptions{
 		Cmd:          cmd,
-		User:         "git", // gitea refuses root
+		User:         user,
+		AttachStdin:  stdin != nil,
 		AttachStdout: true,
 		AttachStderr: true,
 	})
@@ -316,18 +322,24 @@ func (f *GiteaFixture) exec(ctx context.Context, cmd []string) (string, error) {
 		return "", err
 	}

-	attached, err := f.cli.ExecAttach(ctx, created.ID, mobyclient.ExecAttachOptions{})
+	attached, err := cli.ExecAttach(ctx, created.ID, mobyclient.ExecAttachOptions{})
 	if err != nil {
 		return "", err
 	}
 	defer attached.Close()
+	if stdin != nil {
+		go func() {
+			_, _ = io.Copy(attached.Conn, stdin)
+			_ = attached.CloseWrite()
+		}()
+	}

 	var out bytes.Buffer
-	if _, err := io.Copy(&out, attached.Reader); err != nil {
+	if _, err := stdcopy.StdCopy(&out, &out, attached.Reader); err != nil {
 		return "", err
 	}

-	inspected, err := f.cli.ExecInspect(ctx, created.ID, mobyclient.ExecInspectOptions{})
+	inspected, err := cli.ExecInspect(ctx, created.ID, mobyclient.ExecInspectOptions{})
 	if err != nil {
 		return "", err
 	}
@@ -0,0 +1,166 @@
+// Copyright 2026 The Gitea Authors. All rights reserved.
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
+
+//go:build e2e
+
+package e2e
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"context"
+	"fmt"
+	"net"
+	"net/netip"
+	"net/url"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"strconv"
+	"strings"
+	"testing"
+	"time"
+
+	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/config"
+
+	"github.com/moby/moby/api/pkg/stdcopy"
+	apicontainer "github.com/moby/moby/api/types/container"
+	"github.com/moby/moby/api/types/network"
+	mobyclient "github.com/moby/moby/client"
+)
+
+func testKubernetes(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Parallel()
+	ctx := t.Context()
+	k3sID, kubernetes := startK3s(t)
+
+	images := preloadImages(t, k3sID, os.Getenv("E2E_JOB_IMAGE"), os.Getenv("SERVICE_IMAGE"))
+
+	api, repo := newScenario(t)
+	if err := api.CreateVariable(ctx, repo, "E2E_SERVICE_IMAGE", images[1]); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("create service image variable: %v", err)
+	}
+	startRunner(t, repo, "e2e-kubernetes", runnerOptions{image: images[0], kubernetes: kubernetes})
+	pushWorkflow(t, api, repo, "kubernetes.yml")
+
+	wfRun := waitForRun(t, api, repo)
+	requireSuccess(t, api, repo, wfRun.ID)
+
+	if out, err := containerExec(ctx, fixture.cli, k3sID, "", nil,
+		"kubectl", "wait", "--for=delete", "pods,secrets", "--selector=app.kubernetes.io/managed-by=gitea-runner", "--timeout=1m",
+	); err != nil {
+		t.Errorf("job pods or secrets left behind: %v: %s", err, out)
+	}
+}
+
+func startK3s(t *testing.T) (string, *config.Kubernetes) {
+	t.Helper()
+	ctx := t.Context()
+	cli := fixture.cli
+
+	name := fmt.Sprintf("gitea-runner-e2e-k3s-%d", time.Now().UnixNano())
+	apiPort := network.MustParsePort("6443/tcp")
+	server := "https://" + name + ":6443"
+	hostConfig := &apicontainer.HostConfig{Privileged: true}
+	var netConfig *network.NetworkingConfig
+	if fixture.network != "" {
+		netConfig = &network.NetworkingConfig{EndpointsConfig: map[string]*network.EndpointSettings{fixture.network: {}}}
+	} else {
+		loopback := netip.MustParseAddr("127.0.0.1")
+		port, err := freeHostPort(loopback.String())
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatalf("find a free host port: %v", err)
+		}
+		server = "https://" + net.JoinHostPort(loopback.String(), strconv.Itoa(port))
+		hostConfig.PortBindings = network.PortMap{apiPort: []network.PortBinding{{HostIP: loopback, HostPort: strconv.Itoa(port)}}}
+	}
+
+	created, err := cli.ContainerCreate(ctx, mobyclient.ContainerCreateOptions{
+		Config: &apicontainer.Config{
+			Image:        os.Getenv("E2E_K3S_IMAGE"),
+			Cmd:          []string{"server", "--disable=traefik,metrics-server,servicelb,local-storage,coredns", "--tls-san=" + name, "--kubelet-arg=fail-cgroupv1=false"},
+			ExposedPorts: network.PortSet{apiPort: struct{}{}},
+		},
+		HostConfig:       hostConfig,
+		NetworkingConfig: netConfig,
+		Name:             name,
+	})
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("create k3s container: %v", err)
+	}
+	t.Cleanup(func() {
+		_, _ = cli.ContainerRemove(context.Background(), created.ID, mobyclient.ContainerRemoveOptions{Force: true, RemoveVolumes: true})
+	})
+	if _, err := cli.ContainerStart(ctx, created.ID, mobyclient.ContainerStartOptions{}); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("start k3s container: %v", err)
+	}
+
+	waitCtx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(ctx, 2*time.Minute)
+	defer cancel()
+	for {
+		_, err := containerExec(waitCtx, cli, created.ID, "", nil, "kubectl", "get", "serviceaccount", "default")
+		if err == nil {
+			break
+		}
+		inspected, inspectErr := cli.ContainerInspect(ctx, created.ID, mobyclient.ContainerInspectOptions{})
+		if inspectErr != nil || !inspected.Container.State.Running || waitCtx.Err() != nil {
+			var logs bytes.Buffer
+			if reader, logsErr := cli.ContainerLogs(ctx, created.ID, mobyclient.ContainerLogsOptions{ShowStdout: true, ShowStderr: true, Tail: "30"}); logsErr == nil {
+				_, _ = stdcopy.StdCopy(&logs, &logs, reader)
+				_ = reader.Close()
+			}
+			t.Fatalf("k3s did not start: %v, state %+v %v, last log lines:\n%s", err, inspected.Container.State, inspectErr, logs.String())
+		}
+		select {
+		case <-waitCtx.Done():
+		case <-time.After(pollInterval):
+		}
+	}
+
+	kubeconfig, err := containerExec(ctx, cli, created.ID, "", nil, "cat", "/etc/rancher/k3s/k3s.yaml")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("read kubeconfig: %v", err)
+	}
+	path := filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), "kubeconfig")
+	if err := os.WriteFile(path, []byte(strings.ReplaceAll(kubeconfig, "https://127.0.0.1:6443", server)), 0o600); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("write kubeconfig: %v", err)
+	}
+	kubernetes := &config.Kubernetes{Kubeconfig: path, Namespace: "default"}
+
+	if fixture.network != "" {
+		gitea, err := cli.ContainerInspect(ctx, fixture.id, mobyclient.ContainerInspectOptions{})
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatalf("inspect gitea container: %v", err)
+		}
+		giteaURL, err := url.Parse(fixture.baseURL)
+		if err != nil {
+			t.Fatalf("parse gitea url: %v", err)
+		}
+		kubernetes.PodTemplate = map[string]any{"spec": map[string]any{"hostAliases": []any{map[string]any{
+			"ip":        gitea.Container.NetworkSettings.Networks[fixture.network].IPAddress.String(),
+			"hostnames": []any{giteaURL.Hostname()},
+		}}}}
+	}
+	return created.ID, kubernetes
+}
+
+func preloadImages(t *testing.T, k3sID string, images ...string) []string {
+	t.Helper()
+	ctx := t.Context()
+	var aliases []string
+	for index, image := range images {
+		alias := fmt.Sprintf("gitea-runner-e2e/preload-%d:%d", index, time.Now().UnixNano())
+		if _, err := fixture.cli.ImageTag(ctx, mobyclient.ImageTagOptions{Source: image, Target: alias}); err != nil {
+			t.Fatalf("tag %s: %v", image, err)
+		}
+		t.Cleanup(func() { _, _ = fixture.cli.ImageRemove(context.Background(), alias, mobyclient.ImageRemoveOptions{}) })
+		aliases = append(aliases, alias)
+	}
+	archive, err := fixture.cli.ImageSave(ctx, aliases)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("save %v: %v", images, err)
+	}
+	defer archive.Close()
+	if out, err := containerExec(ctx, fixture.cli, k3sID, "", archive, "ctr", "--namespace=k8s.io", "images", "import", "-"); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("import %v into k3s: %v: %s", images, err, out)
+	}
+	return aliases
+}
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@
 package e2e

 import (
+	"cmp"
 	"context"
 	"errors"
 	"os"
@@ -24,10 +25,12 @@ import (
 )

 type runnerOptions struct {
-	capacity  int
-	ephemeral bool
-	cacheV2   *bool
-	cacheHost string
+	capacity   int
+	ephemeral  bool
+	cacheV2    *bool
+	cacheHost  string
+	image      string
+	kubernetes *config.Kubernetes
 }

 func startRunner(t *testing.T, repo, labelName string, options runnerOptions) *poll.Poller {
@@ -61,7 +64,11 @@ func startRunner(t *testing.T, repo, labelName string, options runnerOptions) *p
 		cfg.Container.Network = fixture.network
 	}

-	rawLabel := labelName + ":docker://" + os.Getenv("E2E_JOB_IMAGE")
+	scheme := labels.SchemeDocker
+	if options.kubernetes != nil {
+		scheme, cfg.Kubernetes = labels.SchemeKubernetes, *options.kubernetes
+	}
+	rawLabel := labelName + ":" + scheme + "://" + cmp.Or(options.image, os.Getenv("E2E_JOB_IMAGE"))
 	label, err := labels.Parse(rawLabel)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("parse label %q: %v", rawLabel, err)
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+name: kubernetes
+on: push
+jobs:
+  pod:
+    runs-on: e2e-kubernetes
+    services:
+      web:
+        image: ${{ vars.E2E_SERVICE_IMAGE }}
+        env:
+          NGINX_ENTRYPOINT_QUIET_LOGS: 1
+        options: --health-cmd "wget -q -O /dev/null http://localhost/" --health-interval 1s
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - run: |
+          test -f .gitea/workflows/kubernetes.yml
+          echo "FROM_ENV=exported" >> "$GITHUB_ENV"
+      - run: |
+          test "$FROM_ENV" = exported
+          test -n "$KUBERNETES_SERVICE_HOST" -a -n "${{ runner.arch }}"
+          curl -fsS -o /dev/null http://web/
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
 ### Running `gitea-runner` using `docker-compose`

+This uses the recommended Docker-in-Docker image, see [image flavours](../../README.md#image-flavours).
+
 ```yml
 ...
  gitea:
@@ -19,8 +21,9 @@
      # - GITEA_RUNNER_REGISTRATION_TOKEN=<user-defined registration token>

  runner:
-    image: gitea/runner
+    image: gitea/runner:latest-dind
    restart: always
+    privileged: true
    depends_on:
      gitea:
        # required so runner can attach to gitea, see "healthcheck"
@@ -28,7 +31,6 @@
        restart: true
    volumes:
      - ./data/runner:/data
-      - /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock
    environment:
      - GITEA_INSTANCE_URL=<instance url>
      # When using Docker Secrets, it's also possible to use
@@ -38,10 +40,9 @@
      - GITEA_RUNNER_REGISTRATION_TOKEN=<registration token>
 ```

-### Running `gitea-runner` using Docker-in-Docker (DIND)
+### Running `gitea-runner` using rootless Docker-in-Docker

- `privileged` has to be set to `true` because in-container Docker daemon requires a lot of kernel capabilities and file system mounts like `procfs` and `sysfs`
- `security_opt` sets the `apparmor` profile to `rootlesskit` for hosts running AppArmor (e.g. Ubuntu, Debian), where the kernel might otherwise block user namespace changes that Docker daemon requires for startup. The `rootlesskit` profile is provided by the `docker-ce-rootless-extras` package and is present on hosts where Docker was installed via the official installer or distro packages
+On AppArmor hosts such as Ubuntu and Debian, `security_opt` is needed for the daemon to start. Docker's `docker-ce-rootless-extras` package provides the `rootlesskit` profile.

 ```yml
 ...
@@ -1,8 +1,14 @@
 ### Run `gitea-runner` in a Docker Container

+The recommended Docker-in-Docker image runs its own Docker daemon for jobs, so they never get the host's Docker socket:
+
 ```sh
-docker run -e GITEA_INSTANCE_URL=http://192.168.8.18:3000 -e GITEA_RUNNER_REGISTRATION_TOKEN=<runner_token> -v /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock -v $PWD/data:/data --name my_runner gitea/runner:nightly
+docker run --privileged \
+  -e GITEA_INSTANCE_URL=http://192.168.8.18:3000 \
+  -e GITEA_RUNNER_REGISTRATION_TOKEN=<runner_token> \
+  -v "$PWD/data:/data" \
+  -v runner-docker:/var/lib/docker \
+  --name my_runner gitea/runner:nightly-dind
 ```

-The `/data` directory inside the docker container contains the runner API keys after registration.
-It must be persisted, otherwise the runner would try to register again, using the same, now defunct registration token.
+The volumes keep the runner's registration and the job image cache. See [image flavours](../../README.md#image-flavours) for alternatives.
@@ -1,25 +1,8 @@
-## Kubernetes Docker in Docker Deployment with `gitea-runner`
+## Kubernetes deployments of `gitea-runner`

-NOTE: Docker in Docker (dind) requires elevated privileges on Kubernetes. The current way to achieve this is to set the pod `SecurityContext` to `privileged`. Keep in mind that this is a potential security issue that has the potential for a malicious application to break out of the container context.
+Jobs can run on Kubernetes in two ways:

-NOTE: `dind-docker.yaml` uses the native sidecar pattern (init container with `restartPolicy: Always`), which requires Kubernetes 1.29+ (or 1.28 with the `SidecarContainers` feature gate).
+- **Job pods**: each job runs as its own pod, without privileged containers and under the cluster's quotas and policies. Docker actions and `docker://` steps are not supported. Deploy with [`kubernetes-pods.yaml`](kubernetes-pods.yaml) and see [docs/kubernetes.md](../../docs/kubernetes.md).
+- **Docker in Docker**: jobs run in a Docker daemon next to the runner. Every workflow feature works, but the daemon is privileged, so a job can break out to the node. Deploy with [`dind-docker.yaml`](dind-docker.yaml), [`statefulset-dind.yaml`](statefulset-dind.yaml) for several replicas, [`rootless-docker.yaml`](rootless-docker.yaml) for a rootless daemon, or the [Helm chart](https://gitea.com/gitea/helm-actions). The sidecars in the first two need Kubernetes 1.29 or later.

-NOTE: A helm chart for `gitea-runner` also exists for easier deployments https://gitea.com/gitea/helm-actions
-
-Each example persists **two** things, and it is worth knowing which is which:
-
- `/data` is the runner's working directory. It holds the `.runner` registration file and, optionally, the config file — so the runner re-attaches to the server instead of registering again.
- The Docker daemon's data root holds the images pulled for jobs (`/var/lib/docker` for the dind sidecar, `/home/rootless/.local/share/docker` for `dind-rootless`). It is *not* under `/data`. If you drop this volume, the examples still work, but the image cache is discarded whenever the pod is recreated and every job re-pulls its images.
-
- Kubernetes SIGKILLs a pod 30s after SIGTERM by default, long before a job finishes and reports its result, which leaves tasks the server can only reap as zombies. The manifests raise `terminationGracePeriodSeconds` to three hours, matching the systemd example and the `runner.timeout` job ceiling; set `runner.shutdown_timeout` below that so the runner drains jobs within the window rather than being killed mid-cleanup.
-
-Files in this directory:
-
- [`dind-docker.yaml`](dind-docker.yaml)
-  How to create a Deployment and Persistent Volume for Kubernetes to act as a runner. The Docker credentials are re-generated each time the pod connects and does not need to be persisted.
-
- [`rootless-docker.yaml`](rootless-docker.yaml)
-  How to create a rootless Deployment and Persistent Volume for Kubernetes to act as a runner. The Docker credentials are re-generated each time the pod connects and does not need to be persisted.
-
- [`statefulset-dind.yaml`](statefulset-dind.yaml)
-  StatefulSet variant of the dind example. Each replica gets a stable identity and its own persistent volume via `volumeClaimTemplates`, so the runner keeps its `.runner` registration across restarts and reschedules instead of trying to register again.
+All examples read the registration token from the `runner-secret` Secret and the Gitea URL from `GITEA_INSTANCE_URL`, and keep the registration in `/data`. They give a stopping pod three hours to finish its jobs, so keep `runner.shutdown_timeout` below `terminationGracePeriodSeconds`.
@@ -0,0 +1,83 @@
+apiVersion: v1
+data:
+  token: << base64 encoded registration token >>
+kind: Secret
+metadata:
+  name: runner-secret
+---
+apiVersion: v1
+kind: ServiceAccount
+metadata:
+  name: runner
+---
+apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
+kind: Role
+metadata:
+  name: runner
+rules:
+- apiGroups: [""]
+  resources: ["pods"]
+  verbs: ["create", "get", "list", "delete"]
+- apiGroups: [""]
+  resources: ["pods/exec"]
+  verbs: ["create", "get"]
+- apiGroups: [""]
+  resources: ["pods/log"]
+  verbs: ["get"]
+- apiGroups: [""]
+  resources: ["secrets"]
+  verbs: ["create", "delete"]
+---
+apiVersion: rbac.authorization.k8s.io/v1
+kind: RoleBinding
+metadata:
+  name: runner
+roleRef:
+  apiGroup: rbac.authorization.k8s.io
+  kind: Role
+  name: runner
+subjects:
+- kind: ServiceAccount
+  name: runner
+---
+apiVersion: apps/v1
+kind: StatefulSet
+metadata:
+  name: runner
+spec:
+  serviceName: runner
+  selector:
+    matchLabels:
+      app: runner
+  template:
+    metadata:
+      labels:
+        app: runner
+    spec:
+      serviceAccountName: runner
+      terminationGracePeriodSeconds: 10800 # keep above runner.shutdown_timeout, see README
+      containers:
+      - name: runner
+        image: gitea/runner:nightly
+        env:
+        - name: GITEA_INSTANCE_URL
+          value: http://gitea-http.gitea.svc.cluster.local:3000
+        - name: GITEA_RUNNER_REGISTRATION_TOKEN
+          valueFrom:
+            secretKeyRef:
+              name: runner-secret
+              key: token
+        - name: GITEA_RUNNER_LABELS
+          value: ubuntu-latest:kubernetes://docker.gitea.com/runner-images:ubuntu-latest
+        volumeMounts:
+        - name: runner-data
+          mountPath: /data
+  volumeClaimTemplates:
+  - metadata:
+      name: runner-data
+    spec:
+      accessModes:
+      - ReadWriteOnce
+      resources:
+        requests:
+          storage: 1Gi
@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@ require (
 	gitea.dev/actionslib v1.2.1
 	github.com/avast/retry-go/v5 v5.0.0
 	github.com/bmatcuk/doublestar/v4 v4.10.2
+	github.com/coder/websocket v1.8.15
 	github.com/containerd/errdefs v1.0.0
 	github.com/creack/pty v1.1.24
 	github.com/distribution/reference v0.6.0
@@ -55,6 +55,8 @@ github.com/cevatbarisyilmaz/ara v0.0.4 h1:SGH10hXpBJhhTlObuZzTuFn1rrdmjQImITXnZV
 github.com/cevatbarisyilmaz/ara v0.0.4/go.mod h1:BfFOxnUd6Mj6xmcvRxHN3Sr21Z1T3U2MYkYOmoQe4Ts=
 github.com/cloudflare/circl v1.6.5 h1:O64F26HEqNhznd/hrC5KZXVKYuKM2rx4deZDTc4ihQA=
 github.com/cloudflare/circl v1.6.5/go.mod h1:h5LNyxAc5nTue9DS5jT+48en2PSDYt3zdGnz5OstK6c=
+github.com/coder/websocket v1.8.15 h1:6B2JPeOGlpff2Uz6vOEH1Vzpi0iUz20A+lPVhPHtNUA=
+github.com/coder/websocket v1.8.15/go.mod h1:NX3SzP+inril6yawo5CQXx8+fk145lPDC6pumgx0mVg=
 github.com/containerd/errdefs v1.0.0 h1:tg5yIfIlQIrxYtu9ajqY42W3lpS19XqdxRQeEwYG8PI=
 github.com/containerd/errdefs v1.0.0/go.mod h1:+YBYIdtsnF4Iw6nWZhJcqGSg/dwvV7tyJ/kCkyJ2k+M=
 github.com/containerd/errdefs/pkg v0.3.0 h1:9IKJ06FvyNlexW690DXuQNx2KA2cUJXx151Xdx3ZPPE=
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ func runDaemon(ctx context.Context, daemArgs *daemonArgs, configFile *string) fu
 			defer func() { _ = releaseLock() }()
 		}

-		shutdownTelemetry, err := telemetry.Setup(ctx, reg.UUID, reg.Name)
+		shutdownTelemetry, err := telemetry.Setup(ctx, reg.UUID, reg.Name, metrics.Registry)
 		if err != nil {
 			log.WithError(err).Warn("OpenTelemetry export failed to start")
 		}
@@ -191,6 +191,9 @@ func runDaemon(ctx context.Context, daemArgs *daemonArgs, configFile *string) fu
 			return err
 		case err != nil:
 			log.WithError(err).Error("fail to invoke Declare")
+			if client.IsRegistrationRejected(err) {
+				removeEphemeralRegistration(reg, cfg.Runner.File)
+			}
 			return err
 		default:
 			log.Infof("runner: %s, with version: %s, with labels: %v, declare successfully",
@@ -200,12 +203,12 @@ func runDaemon(ctx context.Context, daemArgs *daemonArgs, configFile *string) fu

 		poller := poll.New(cfg, cli, runner)

+		metrics.Init() // OTLP exports the registry even without the server
+		metrics.RunnerInfo.WithLabelValues(ver.Version(), resp.Msg.Runner.Name).Set(1)
+		metrics.RunnerCapacity.Set(float64(cfg.Runner.Capacity))
+		metrics.RegisterUptimeFunc(time.Now())
+		metrics.RegisterRunningJobsFunc(runner.RunningCount, cfg.Runner.Capacity)
 		if cfg.Metrics.Enabled {
-			metrics.Init()
-			metrics.RunnerInfo.WithLabelValues(ver.Version(), resp.Msg.Runner.Name).Set(1)
-			metrics.RunnerCapacity.Set(float64(cfg.Runner.Capacity))
-			metrics.RegisterUptimeFunc(time.Now())
-			metrics.RegisterRunningJobsFunc(runner.RunningCount, cfg.Runner.Capacity)
 			metrics.StartServer(ctx, cfg.Metrics.Addr, func() (bool, string) {
 				return poller.Ready(cfg.Metrics.ReadinessGrace)
 			})
@@ -215,7 +218,7 @@ func runDaemon(ctx context.Context, daemArgs *daemonArgs, configFile *string) fu
 			done := make(chan struct{})
 			go func() {
 				defer close(done)
-				poller.PollOnce()
+				poller.PollOnce(func() { removeEphemeralRegistration(reg, cfg.Runner.File) })
 			}()

 			// shutdown when we complete a job or cancel is requested
@@ -244,6 +247,10 @@ func runDaemon(ctx context.Context, daemArgs *daemonArgs, configFile *string) fu
 			log.Warnf("runner: %s cancelled in progress jobs during shutdown", resp.Msg.Runner.Name)
 		}

+		if poller.RegistrationRejected() {
+			removeEphemeralRegistration(reg, cfg.Runner.File)
+		}
+
 		if poller.Unregistered() {
 			return errors.New("runner is no longer registered with the server; please register it again")
 		}
@@ -252,6 +259,17 @@ func runDaemon(ctx context.Context, daemArgs *daemonArgs, configFile *string) fu
 	}
 }

+func removeEphemeralRegistration(reg *config.Registration, file string) {
+	if !reg.Ephemeral {
+		return
+	}
+	if err := os.Remove(file); err == nil {
+		log.Infof("removed the spent ephemeral registration %q", file)
+	} else if !os.IsNotExist(err) {
+		log.WithError(err).Warn("failed to remove the spent ephemeral registration")
+	}
+}
+
 type daemonArgs struct {
 	Once   bool
 	Labels string
@@ -4,13 +4,24 @@
 package cmd

 import (
+	"context"
+	"errors"
+	"net/http"
+	"net/http/httptest"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
 	"testing"
+	"time"

 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/config"
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/report"

+	"connectrpc.com/connect"
+	runnerv1 "gitea.dev/actionslib/runner/v1"
+	"gitea.dev/actionslib/runner/v1/runnerv1connect"
 	log "github.com/sirupsen/logrus"
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+	"google.golang.org/protobuf/types/known/structpb"
 )

 func TestResolveLabels(t *testing.T) {
@@ -70,3 +81,79 @@ func TestInitLoggingSetsLevelAndCaller(t *testing.T) {
 	// act plans a job on this logger, so a live task's secrets have to be masked out of it
 	require.IsType(t, report.MaskingFormatter(nil), log.StandardLogger().Formatter)
 }
+
+var errUnregisteredRunner = errors.New("rpc error: code = Unauthenticated desc = unregistered runner")
+
+type daemonTestService struct {
+	runnerv1connect.UnimplementedRunnerServiceHandler
+	declareErr, fetchErr error
+	beforeTask           bool
+	cancel               context.CancelFunc
+}
+
+func (s *daemonTestService) Declare(context.Context, *connect.Request[runnerv1.DeclareRequest]) (*connect.Response[runnerv1.DeclareResponse], error) {
+	if s.declareErr != nil {
+		return nil, s.declareErr
+	}
+	return connect.NewResponse(&runnerv1.DeclareResponse{Runner: &runnerv1.Runner{Name: "test"}}), nil
+}
+
+func (s *daemonTestService) FetchTask(context.Context, *connect.Request[runnerv1.FetchTaskRequest]) (*connect.Response[runnerv1.FetchTaskResponse], error) {
+	if s.fetchErr != nil {
+		return nil, s.fetchErr
+	}
+	if s.beforeTask {
+		s.cancel()
+		return nil, context.Canceled
+	}
+	return connect.NewResponse(&runnerv1.FetchTaskResponse{Task: &runnerv1.Task{Id: 1, Context: &structpb.Struct{}, WorkflowPayload: []byte("invalid: [")}}), nil
+}
+
+func (*daemonTestService) UpdateTask(_ context.Context, req *connect.Request[runnerv1.UpdateTaskRequest]) (*connect.Response[runnerv1.UpdateTaskResponse], error) {
+	return connect.NewResponse(&runnerv1.UpdateTaskResponse{State: req.Msg.State}), nil
+}
+
+func (*daemonTestService) UpdateLog(_ context.Context, req *connect.Request[runnerv1.UpdateLogRequest]) (*connect.Response[runnerv1.UpdateLogResponse], error) {
+	return connect.NewResponse(&runnerv1.UpdateLogResponse{AckIndex: req.Msg.Index + int64(len(req.Msg.Rows))}), nil
+}
+
+func TestDaemonRemovesOnlyConsumedEphemeralRegistration(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, tc := range []struct {
+		name                  string
+		ephemeral, beforeTask bool
+		declareErr, fetchErr  error
+		removed               bool
+	}{
+		{"ephemeral failed task", true, false, nil, nil, true},
+		{"ephemeral interrupted before task", true, true, nil, nil, false},
+		{"persistent once", false, false, nil, nil, false},
+		{"ephemeral rejected on fetch", true, false, nil, errUnregisteredRunner, true},
+		{"ephemeral proxy 401 on fetch", true, false, nil, connect.NewError(connect.CodeUnauthenticated, errors.New("HTTP status 401 Unauthorized")), false},
+		{"ephemeral rejected on declare", true, false, errUnregisteredRunner, nil, true},
+		{"persistent rejected on declare", false, false, errUnregisteredRunner, nil, false},
+	} {
+		t.Run(tc.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			ctx, cancel := context.WithTimeout(t.Context(), 5*time.Second)
+			defer cancel()
+			_, handler := runnerv1connect.NewRunnerServiceHandler(&daemonTestService{declareErr: tc.declareErr, fetchErr: tc.fetchErr, beforeTask: tc.beforeTask, cancel: cancel})
+			server := httptest.NewServer(http.StripPrefix("/api/actions", handler))
+			defer server.Close()
+			dir := t.TempDir()
+			regFile := filepath.Join(dir, "registration.json")
+			configFile := filepath.Join(dir, "config.yaml")
+			require.NoError(t, os.WriteFile(configFile, []byte("runner:\n  file: "+regFile+"\n  idle_cleanup_interval: 0s\ncache:\n  enabled: false\n"), 0o600))
+			require.NoError(t, config.SaveRegistration(regFile, &config.Registration{Address: server.URL, UUID: "test", Name: "test", Token: "test", Labels: []string{"host:host"}, Ephemeral: tc.ephemeral}))
+			err := runDaemon(ctx, &daemonArgs{Once: true}, &configFile)(nil, nil)
+			if tc.declareErr == nil && tc.fetchErr == nil {
+				require.NoError(t, err)
+			} else {
+				require.Error(t, err)
+			}
+			if tc.removed {
+				require.NoFileExists(t, regFile)
+			} else {
+				require.FileExists(t, regFile)
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
@@ -618,7 +618,7 @@ func loadExecCmd(ctx context.Context) *cobra.Command {
 	execCmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVarP(&execArg.noSkipCheckout, "no-skip-checkout", "", false, "Do not skip actions/checkout")
 	execCmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVarP(&execArg.debug, "debug", "d", false, "enable debug log")
 	execCmd.PersistentFlags().BoolVarP(&execArg.dryrun, "dryrun", "n", false, "dryrun mode")
-	execCmd.PersistentFlags().StringVarP(&execArg.image, "image", "i", config.DefaultImage, "Docker image to use. Use \"-self-hosted\" to run directly on the host.")
+	execCmd.PersistentFlags().StringVarP(&execArg.image, "image", "i", config.DefaultImage, "Docker image to use. Use \"kubernetes://<image>\" to run it as a pod, \"-self-hosted\" to run directly on the host.")
 	execCmd.PersistentFlags().StringVarP(&execArg.toolCacheMode, "tool-cache-mode", "", config.ToolCacheModeNone, "What to mount at RUNNER_TOOL_CACHE: none, or shared to reuse one tool cache across runs")
 	execCmd.PersistentFlags().StringVarP(&execArg.network, "network", "", "", "Specify the network to which the container will connect")
 	execCmd.PersistentFlags().StringVarP(&execArg.githubInstance, "gitea-instance", "", "", "Gitea instance to use.")
@@ -12,7 +12,6 @@ import (
 	"os/signal"
 	goruntime "runtime"
 	"strings"
-	"time"

 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/app/run"
 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/client"
@@ -370,28 +369,12 @@ func doRegister(ctx context.Context, cfg *config.Config, inputs *registerInputs)
 		config.RequestTimeout,
 	)

-	for {
-		_, err := cli.Ping(ctx, connect.NewRequest(&pingv1.PingRequest{
-			Data: inputs.RunnerName,
-		}))
-		select {
-		case <-ctx.Done():
-			return ctx.Err()
-		default:
-		}
-		if ctx.Err() != nil {
-			break
-		}
-		if err != nil {
-			log.WithError(err).
-				Errorln("Cannot ping the Gitea instance server")
-			// TODO: if ping failed, retry or exit
-			time.Sleep(time.Second)
-		} else {
-			log.Debugln("Successfully pinged the Gitea instance server")
-			break
-		}
+	if _, err := cli.Ping(ctx, connect.NewRequest(&pingv1.PingRequest{
+		Data: inputs.RunnerName,
+	})); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("cannot ping the Gitea instance server: %w", err)
 	}
+	log.Debugln("Successfully pinged the Gitea instance server")

 	reg := &config.Registration{
 		Name:      inputs.RunnerName,
@@ -4,7 +4,11 @@
 package cmd

 import (
+	"net/http"
+	"net/http/httptest"
 	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"sync/atomic"
 	"testing"

 	"gitea.com/gitea/runner/internal/pkg/config"
@@ -246,3 +250,18 @@ func TestInitInputs(t *testing.T) {
 		require.Nil(t, inputs.Labels)
 	})
 }
+
+func TestDoRegisterReturnsPingErrorWithoutRetrying(t *testing.T) {
+	var requests atomic.Int32
+	server := httptest.NewServer(http.HandlerFunc(func(w http.ResponseWriter, _ *http.Request) {
+		requests.Add(1)
+		w.WriteHeader(http.StatusServiceUnavailable)
+	}))
+	defer server.Close()
+
+	cfg := &config.Config{}
+	cfg.Runner.File = filepath.Join(t.TempDir(), ".runner")
+	err := doRegister(t.Context(), cfg, &registerInputs{InstanceAddr: server.URL, RunnerName: "runner"})
+	assert.ErrorContains(t, err, "cannot ping the Gitea instance server")
+	assert.Equal(t, int32(1), requests.Load())
+}
@@ -52,6 +52,8 @@ type Poller struct {

 	done chan struct{}

+	registrationRejected atomic.Bool
+
 	// unregistered is set when the server rejects the runner with an
 	// Unauthenticated response, meaning the runner is no longer registered.
 	unregistered       atomic.Bool
@@ -151,7 +153,7 @@ func (p *Poller) Poll() {
 	}
 }

-func (p *Poller) PollOnce() {
+func (p *Poller) PollOnce(onTaskFetched func()) {
 	defer close(p.done)
 	s := &workerState{}
 	for {
@@ -173,6 +175,7 @@ func (p *Poller) PollOnce() {
 			continue
 		}
 		s.resetBackoff()
+		onTaskFetched()
 		p.runTaskWithRecover(p.jobsCtx, task)
 		return
 	}
@@ -191,6 +194,11 @@ func (p *Poller) Unregistered() bool {
 	return p.unregistered.Load()
 }

+// RegistrationRejected reports whether polling stopped on an error matching client.IsRegistrationRejected.
+func (p *Poller) RegistrationRejected() bool {
+	return p.registrationRejected.Load()
+}
+
 // Ready reports whether the daemon can currently communicate with Gitea and
 // accept work, reusing the availability the poll loop last observed rather than
 // re-running the check. Transient transport failures are tolerated for grace.
@@ -368,9 +376,11 @@ func (p *Poller) fetchTask(ctx context.Context, s *workerState) (*runnerv1.Task,
 		// An Unauthenticated response means the server no longer knows this
 		// runner (e.g. it was deleted). Retrying forever is pointless, so stop
 		// polling and let the daemon exit with an error instead of spinning.
-		if isUnregistered(err) {
+		rejected := client.IsRegistrationRejected(err)
+		if rejected || connect.CodeOf(err) == connect.CodeUnauthenticated {
 			log.WithError(err).Error("server rejected the runner as unregistered, stopping poller")
 			p.unregistered.Store(true)
+			p.registrationRejected.Store(rejected)
 			p.shutdownPolling()
 			return nil, false
 		}
@@ -415,12 +425,6 @@ func (p *Poller) fetchTask(ctx context.Context, s *workerState) (*runnerv1.Task,
 	return resp.Msg.Task, true
 }

-func isUnregistered(err error) bool {
-	var connectErr *connect.Error
-	return errors.As(err, &connectErr) && (connectErr.Code() == connect.CodeUnauthenticated ||
-		connectErr.Code() == connect.CodeUnknown && connect.IsWireError(err) && connectErr.Message() == "rpc error: code = Unauthenticated desc = unregistered runner")
-}
-
 func (p *Poller) markHealthyPoll() {
 	p.lastHealthyPoll.Store(time.Now().UnixNano())
 	p.lastPollFailed.Store(false)
@@ -106,13 +106,16 @@ func TestPoller_FetchTimeoutIsNoSignal(t *testing.T) {
 // response marks the runner as unregistered and cancels the polling context so
 // the daemon can exit instead of retrying forever.
 func TestPoller_FetchUnauthenticatedStopsPolling(t *testing.T) {
-	for name, fetchErr := range map[string]error{
-		"connect": connect_go.NewError(connect_go.CodeUnauthenticated, errors.New("unregistered runner")),
-		"gitea":   connect_go.NewWireError(connect_go.CodeUnknown, errors.New("rpc error: code = Unauthenticated desc = unregistered runner")),
+	for name, tc := range map[string]struct {
+		fetchErr error
+		rejected bool
+	}{
+		"connect": {connect_go.NewError(connect_go.CodeUnauthenticated, errors.New("unregistered runner")), false},
+		"gitea":   {connect_go.NewWireError(connect_go.CodeUnknown, errors.New("rpc error: code = Unauthenticated desc = unregistered runner")), true},
 	} {
 		t.Run(name, func(t *testing.T) {
 			client := mocks.NewClient(t)
-			client.On("FetchTask", mock.Anything, mock.Anything).Return(nil, fetchErr)
+			client.On("FetchTask", mock.Anything, mock.Anything).Return(nil, tc.fetchErr)

 			cfg, err := config.LoadDefault("")
 			require.NoError(t, err)
@@ -122,6 +125,7 @@ func TestPoller_FetchUnauthenticatedStopsPolling(t *testing.T) {
 			require.False(t, ok)

 			assert.True(t, p.Unregistered(), "runner should be marked unregistered")
+			assert.Equal(t, tc.rejected, p.RegistrationRejected())
 			assert.Equal(t, int64(0), s.consecutiveErrors, "unauthenticated must not drive error backoff")
 			select {
 			case <-p.pollingCtx.Done():
@@ -330,7 +334,7 @@ func TestPollerPollOnceCallsOnIdle(t *testing.T) {
 	poller := New(cfg, cli, runner)

 	var wg sync.WaitGroup
-	wg.Go(poller.PollOnce)
+	wg.Go(func() { poller.PollOnce(func() {}) })

 	require.Eventually(t, func() bool {
 		return runner.idleCalls.Load() > 0
@@ -342,6 +346,18 @@ func TestPollerPollOnceCallsOnIdle(t *testing.T) {
 	wg.Wait()
 }

+func TestPollerPollOnceCallsOnTaskFetchedBeforeRunningIt(t *testing.T) {
+	cli := mocks.NewClient(t)
+	cli.On("FetchTask", mock.Anything, mock.Anything).Return(connect_go.NewResponse(&runnerv1.FetchTaskResponse{Task: &runnerv1.Task{Id: 1}}), nil)
+	cfg, err := config.LoadDefault("")
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	runner := &mockRunner{}
+	runsSeenByCallback := int64(-1)
+	New(cfg, cli, runner).PollOnce(func() { runsSeenByCallback = runner.running.Load() + runner.totalCompleted.Load() })
+	assert.Zero(t, runsSeenByCallback)
+	assert.Equal(t, int64(1), runner.totalCompleted.Load())
+}
+
 // TestPoller_ConcurrencyLimitedByCapacity verifies that with capacity=3 and
 // 6 available tasks, at most 3 tasks run concurrently, and FetchTask is
 // never called concurrently (single poller).
Author	SHA1	Message	Date
silverwind	ddee2e054a	fix: align Docker actions, job env and host mode with GitHub (#1268 ) - Docker actions evaluate `runs.args` and `runs.env` with their own `inputs`, so a same-named `workflow_dispatch` input no longer replaces the step's `with:` value - Dockerfile action images are tagged per step and job and removed afterwards, so changed Dockerfiles rebuild and concurrent jobs never share an image - Workflow and job `env` are evaluated before job and service container credentials and service `env` use them - Docker actions in host jobs get the host workspace and file-command directory mounted, and no longer inherit the runner's own `PATH` - Cache server address detection accepts a single interface address Fixes: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/390 Fixes: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/406 Fixes: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/578 Related: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/64 Reviewed-on: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/pulls/1268 Reviewed-by: bircni <[email protected]> Co-authored-by: silverwind <[email protected]>	2026-10-01 19:45:13 +00:00
silverwindandbircni	629e062f86	fix: drop stalled HTTP/2 connections in action clones (#1266 ) go-git sends all concurrent action clones from a host over one HTTP/2 connection, and Go sends no health-check pings by default. When that connection stalls, every clone on it hangs until the job timeout and cancellation can't free them, as in https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/actions/runs/1003885/jobs/1361593. Ping idle connections so a stalled one is dropped after about 45s. --------- Co-authored-by: bircni <[email protected]> Reviewed-on: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/pulls/1266 Reviewed-by: bircni <[email protected]> Co-authored-by: silverwind <[email protected]>	2026-10-01 16:48:19 +00:00
bircniandsilverwind	73e9552f06	fix: fail fast in register and honor GITEA_MAX_REG_ATTEMPTS (#1197 ) `gitea-runner register` pinged the instance in an unbounded loop, so a permanent failure like an untrusted certificate or a wrong URL never returned. It now pings once and returns the error, like other one-shot commands. The image entrypoint keeps retrying registration indefinitely by default, like the daemon, so a container without a restart policy still recovers once Gitea is reachable. `GITEA_MAX_REG_ATTEMPTS` had no effect because its counter was incremented outside the loop. When set, it now caps the attempts, after which the entrypoint exits non-zero. Fixes: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/1195 Co-authored-by: silverwind <[email protected]> Reviewed-on: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/pulls/1197 Reviewed-by: Lunny Xiao <[email protected]> Reviewed-by: silverwind <[email protected]> Co-authored-by: bircni <[email protected]>	2026-10-01 16:01:14 +00:00
silverwindandbircni	05162998eb	fix: dind image readiness, exit codes and shutdown order (#1265 ) Fixes https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/1263 - Wait for dockerd without a check limit. s6 readiness gave up after 7 checks, so the runner never started on slow hosts, also seen in https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/712, https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/652 and https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/758. - Let the runner run the docker service's readiness check itself instead of reading s6 status, which can be missing at startup or stale after an unclean stop. - Exit the container with the first failing service's exit code instead of always 0, so `restart: on-failure` works. A requested stop still exits 0. - Stop the runner before dockerd, so running jobs can finish within `shutdown_timeout`. The stop grace period has to cover that drain. - Check the supervision exit codes in `make test-dind`. --------- Co-authored-by: bircni <[email protected]> Reviewed-on: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/pulls/1265 Reviewed-by: bircni <[email protected]>	2026-10-01 13:22:25 +00:00
wmTJc9IK0Q silverwind silverwind bircni	568f89d186	enhance: export the Prometheus metrics over OpenTelemetry (#1248 ) Push the runner's Prometheus metrics to the OTLP endpoint next to the job traces, so both land in the same backend. The `/metrics` registry is converted as the [Prometheus compatibility spec](https://opentelemetry.io/docs/specs/otel/compatibility/prometheus_and_openmetrics/) describes and sent through the existing gRPC-free client, so names stay unchanged and no second metrics stack is linked. Metrics are on by default and pushed every interval and once on shutdown, so ephemeral runners report too. New standard variables, each `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_*` one with `TRACES` and `METRICS` variants: - `OTEL_METRICS_EXPORTER`, `none` turns metrics off - `OTEL_METRIC_EXPORT_INTERVAL`, `OTEL_METRIC_EXPORT_TIMEOUT` - `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_TIMEOUT`, `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_COMPRESSION` - `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_CERTIFICATE`, `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_CLIENT_CERTIFICATE`, `OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_CLIENT_KEY` --------- Co-authored-by: silverwind <[email protected]> Co-authored-by: silverwind <[email protected]> Co-authored-by: bircni <[email protected]> Reviewed-on: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/pulls/1248 Reviewed-by: silverwind <[email protected]> Reviewed-by: bircni <[email protected]> Co-authored-by: wmTJc9IK0Q <[email protected]>	2026-10-01 12:55:16 +00:00
bircniandsilverwind	d93b7d278a	fix: clear consumed ephemeral registration state (#1256 ) Ephemeral registrations are single-use, but the daemon kept `.runner` after the task, so a restarted container failed `Declare` with `unregistered runner` forever. An ephemeral runner now removes its registration file as soon as it fetches a task, so a container killed mid-job registers afresh on restart. It also removes the file when Gitea answers `unregistered runner` at startup or while polling. A proxy's 401 does not count. Persistent runners keep their file, because Gitea sends the same reply for a token mismatch. Closes https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/818 --------- Co-authored-by: silverwind <[email protected]> Reviewed-on: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/pulls/1256 Reviewed-by: silverwind <[email protected]>	2026-10-01 09:23:45 +00:00
silverwind Zettat123 bircni	0cedd98051	feat: add Kubernetes backend (#1260 ) Adds a Kubernetes backend. A `name:kubernetes://image` label runs the job as one pod through the Kubernetes API, with services as containers of the same pod. Step env is exported by a script sent over exec stdin, keeping it out of the pod spec and process arguments, and service env goes into a per-job Secret. Docker actions and container options are rejected. See `docs/kubernetes.md`. Operators shape job pods with `kubernetes.pod_template`, with per-label `pod_templates` merged in `runs-on` order and a `$services` entry for service containers. The idle cleanup removes pods and Secrets a runner left behind. The client calls the Kubernetes API directly and runs step commands over `coder/websocket` (same dependency used in gitea) instead of pulling in the heavyweight `kubernetes/client-go`. Includes an e2e test against k3s. Replaces: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/pulls/1000 Fixes: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/31 Assisted-by: Claude Code:claude-opus-5-5 Co-authored-by: Zettat123 <[email protected]> Co-authored-by: bircni <[email protected]> Reviewed-on: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/pulls/1260 Reviewed-by: Lunny Xiao <[email protected]> Reviewed-by: Zettat123 <[email protected]> Co-authored-by: silverwind <[email protected]>	2026-10-01 06:59:15 +00:00
bircni silverwind silverwind	07ca4bfa7f	enhance: log task, job and run identifiers when a task starts (#1257 ) Replace the `task N repo is ...` line with a structured `task started` entry carrying `task_id`, `job_id`, `run_id`, `run_number`, `repository` and the workflow's `job` key, so external supervisors can match runner activity to the job in Gitea. `job_id` is read from the runtime token's claims, tokens and secrets are never logged. Closes https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/752 --------- Co-authored-by: silverwind <[email protected]> Co-authored-by: silverwind <[email protected]> Reviewed-on: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/pulls/1257 Reviewed-by: silverwind <[email protected]>	2026-09-30 19:42:52 +00:00
bircni silverwind silverwind	78610b01f6	docs: recommend DinD for container jobs (#1258 ) Make Docker-in-Docker the recommended and first-shown setup. Mounting the host's Docker socket gives every job root-equivalent access to the host, while DinD gives jobs their own daemon. The default `latest` tag is unchanged. Also shorten the image flavour docs to what users need to pick an image, and correct that `dind-rootless` needs `--privileged` too. Closes https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/issues/1227 --------- Co-authored-by: silverwind <[email protected]> Co-authored-by: silverwind <[email protected]> Reviewed-on: https://gitea.com/gitea/runner/pulls/1258 Reviewed-by: silverwind <[email protected]> Co-authored-by: bircni <[email protected]>	2026-09-30 18:27:11 +00:00